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abstract compositions of Libya from various real photos


Libya

 

Country: Libya (ليبيا).
Demonym: Libyan (ليبي).
Nationality: Libyan (لیبی , ليبيية).
Location: North Africa.

hieroglyphic letters spelling the name Rebu

The Berber name Rebu in ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.

 

The Origin of The Name Libya:

The name Libya is often written in various forms including Lybia, Libia, Libye and Lebya. There are several theories attempting to explain the origin of the name, but it is almost certain that it comes from the ancient Berber tribe known to the ancient Egyptians as Rebu or Ribu; from which the Greeks derived "Libya", and which the Arabs of today's Egypt know as Lubia, whence Lubians, in line with their relatives and neighbours the Nubians. The name Libia, as found in the archaeological site of Qasr Libya or Qaser Libia, in Cyrenaica, is widely thought to have been derived from the ancient Libyan village of Olbia. According to (the African) Leo Africanus (1600, p.13), it was called Libya by the Greeks: "Because it was in old time conquered by Libs the king of Mauritania. In the holie scriptures it is called Chamesis, by the Arabians and Ethiopians Alkebulam, and by the Indians Besecath.” In the Bible the Libyans appeared as the Lubim, where the -m denotes the plural form; but after the Hebrews decided to add the letter H to several names, like Abram becoming Abraham, and Sara > Sarah, the Lubim appeared in the Old Testament as Lebahim, the son of Mizraim; which Oric Bates, in his unique book The Eastern Libyans, was the first to identify with the modern variant Ta-Mazigh-t (Tamazight), an appellation widely applied to the whole Berbers of North Africa. The proposed etymology of 'Libya' being moisture has no support other than the Libyan wind which brought rain to Greek mainland, and, as it is obvious that the Greek Libu is the same as Egyptian Ribu (following the universal rule of L = R) one does not need to propose a Greek etymology for a name that is not Greek. The proper etymology must be sought in the mother language of the given word - the ancient Libyan language: Tamazight or Berber. Egyptian and Berber are both members of the Hamitic branch of the Hamito-Samitic linguistic family, and many of the ancient Egyptian and Berber mythical gods and goddesses are still represented on the rock art of the great Sahara, in what is known as the largest collection of prehistoric art in the world: well over a hundred thousand sites.

 

 

ancient Libyans according to Egyptian drawings

Ancient Libyans, as pictured by the ancient Egyptians.

 

hieroglyphic letters spelling the name Rebu

 

The Mythology of The Name Libya:

Libya was also the name of the Goddess known to the Greeks as the Goddess Libya, and also of the whole continent before the Romans named it Africa after the Berber Goddess Afri. In mythology, the Goddess Libya had three sons by the Libyan Sea-God Poseidon: Belus, Agenor and Lelex. King Belus ruled  at Chemmis or Chamesis of Leo Africanus,  Agenor migrated to Cana'an (the Middle East), and Lelex became king of Megara. The wife of Belus Anchinoe, daughter of the Nile-god Nilus, bore him three sons: Aegyptus, Danaus and Cepheus, and  one daughter:  Lamia, the Libyan Snake-goddess. The myth relates an interesting "deception tale" in which Danaus was sent to rule Libya where he had fifty daughters, and Aegyptus, who had fifty sons, ruled over Egypt.

 

The Political Name of Libya:

This map shows how Libya looked like during the colonial periods. A look at the map of Egypt (bordered red) shows traces of the ancient Libya, as in "Libyan Desert", the site of the Libyan Desert Glass, and "Libyan Plat" (The Libyan Plateau). The British-controlled Sudan extended quite a distance in today's Libya and Chad.  As mentioned above, there was no such thing as Libya then; there was only an Italian-occupied country (regency) called TRIPOLI. In 1917-1918 the Republic of Tripoli was created to become the first ever republic in the Arab world. The republic, also called Tripolitanian Republic, which involved Berber elements in the leadership, did not gain enough support in the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, even though was fully recognised by Italy, and consequently disappeared from history by 1923.

 

Map of Libya just before the wars
Map of Libya & North Africa Prior to WW2, Showing The Country Tripoli (in green).

 

The actual name Libya, as a modern country, came into effect for the first time around 1934 when the provinces of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were united as Libya during the Italian occupation; initially Fezzan was not included, but after independence the three provinces were united as one country, when on the 24th of December 1951 Libya was declared as the United Kingdom of Libya. Shortly after the installation of Colonel Mua’mmar al-Qaddafi (Gaddafi) in 1969, Libya became known as the Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, where the last word became synonymous with Libya. Many Libyans feel the introduction of the term "Arab" by the government into the name of Libya does not democratically represent all the true populations of Libya, originally inhabited by the Berbers ('Imazighen'), and still is inhabited by the Berbers in various parts of the country, including most of Nafousa Mountain, Zuwarah, Ghadames, Ghat, Jalo, Awjlah, and most of the Sahara, the home of the Tuareg Berber confederacies. However, LIBYA is back as the official name of the country after the arrival of the National Transitional Council (NTC) in 2011.

 

 

a map of ancient Libya during the Egyptian empire: Temehu, Tehenu, Ribu (Rebu), Meshwesh

Map of Ancient Libya, showing the locations of the native Libyan Berber tribes of Ancient Egypt.

 

The above ancient map of Libya, which is over 2000 years older than the colonial map, shows there was no Egypt, just a huge expanse of land known to classical geographers and historians as Libya, to the extent that the name Libya also came to designate the whole of the continent of Africa. For more information about the native inhabitants of ancient Libya, including the Berber tribes of the Delta and the western banks of the Nile, please visit The Temehu Tribes of Ancient Libya. When the Romans arrived through the western gates of Libya (Tripolitania and Tunisia), they adopted the name Aprica or Africa from the Berber name of the local tribes who inhabited the region, as in Yefren today, and thereafter Libya became known as Africa. This means that the names "Libya" and "Africa" are both Berber in origin.

 

Updated on: 17 February 2012.

 


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The Flags of Libya

 

 

Tripolitanian Republic flag

(1): Flag of  the Tripolitanian Republic (1919 - 1923).
Source: Wikipedia.

 

 

 

the flag of cyrenaica

(2): Flag of Cyrenaica (1949 - 1951).

The name Sanusi (or Senusi) refers to a political-religious order, said to have been founded in 1837 by the grandfather of King Idris, the Grand Sanusi (Sayyid Muhammad Ibn Ali as-Senussi). The black flag with the white star and the crescent was adopted by Idris as-Sanusi after he proclaimed the eastern region of Libya as "The Emirate of Cyrenaica" on the 1st of March 1949, and appointed himself the Emir of Cyrenaica. Even though the UK did aknowledge the Emirate, the UN failed to recognise the new country. Two years later (in 1951) he was installed the King of Libya.

 

 

 

the flag of the kingdom of Libya

(3): The Flag of the Libyan Kingdom (المملكة الليبية).
(1951 - 1969).

On the 24th of December 1951 Libya became an independent state, under the name of The Libyan Kingdom, also known as The United Kingdom of Libya - uniting Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan. After the Emir of Cyrenaica was declared the King of Libya, the king carried his Cyrenaica flag to the new kingdom, with the addition of red and green, supposedly to represent Tripolitania and Fezzan.

 

 

 

flag of libya from 1969 to 1972

(4): Flag of the Libyan Arab Republic (الجمهورية العربية الليبية).

(1969 - 1972).

 

 

flag of libya from 1972 to 1977

(5): Flag of the Federation of Arab Republics (اتحاد الجمهوريات العربية).
The federation is a short-lived union between Libya, Syria and Egypt.

(1972 - 1977).
Source: wikipedia

 

 

the green flag of Gaddafi's libya

(6): Flag of the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
( الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية العظمى).

(1977-2011).

 

 

 

the current flag of Libya 2011

(7): The current official flag of Libya (ليبيا).

(2011).

The Libyan Kingdom flag was adopted early on during the February Uprising of 2011, and in a matter of weeks it was effectively used all over Libya by protesters, fighters and web masters as well as by the NTC and the international media; followed by a range of flag-decorated products quickly appearing in the market, ranging from hand-held flags, scarves, hats, cups, badges and key-rings among other novelty items.

The flag is now once more the official flag of Libya since the 23rd of October 2011 (The Liberation Day) -- the day Libya was officially declared liberated by the NTC from the 42-year rule of Gaddafi. The flag was defined by the NTC in its interim Constitutional Declaration (Article 3), in which the white star was referred to as كوكب ('planet').

It is not clear how exactly the flag came to be adopted, nor why a flag of a "monarchy" should be used to represent "revolutionary" Libya. But like before, the decision was made somewhere without consultation with the people of Libya. There were a number of Libyan opposition groups that had used the monarchy flag in exile during their campaign to depose the ousted regime, and it is possible that one of these groups had re-introduced the flag early on during the uprising.

 

Note:

 

the Berbers' cultural flag

(0): The unofficial, cultural flag of the Berbers of Libya (ليبيا).

(2011).

This flag was used by the Berbers of Libya during the uprising as an expression of freedom and the revolt against oppression. It was carried, together with the above official flag of Libya, during the February wars by the Berber natives of Libya in Zuwarah, Nafousa Mountain, and the oases of the Sahara, as well as by their Libyan Arab brothers from Mesratha and Benghazi. The flag does not represent any political inclinations and has nothing to do with dividing Libya, as some Libyans were quick to respond. It is a mere gesture of one's identity and culture, previously oppressed by all the regimes of Libya.


 

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History of Libya



North Africa was originally inhabited by an indigenous group of  Berber tribes whose linguistic unity proves that an ethnic sub-stratum of "autochthons" single race existed in North Africa from the Mediterranean to the Sudan and from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. These people spoke a Hamitic language which together with ancient Egyptian, Chadic, Ethiopian, Semitic and Omotic make up the Afro-Asiatic family of languages. The positive side of Libya's history is that it was the ancient centre from which civilisations radiated to spread around the whole of the Mediterranean sea. According to Herodotus, the ancient Libyans were the first to know civilisation, and no one knew of Poseidon and Athena before them. Among the things invented by the ancient Libyans are the wheel, the chariot, and the banking system (the Berber fortified granaries of today). The advancements made by the ancient Libyans in the fields of art, science, mythology and in many other aspects of human culture require decades of work to catalogue.


1 - Ancient Libya:

Libya's ancient history goes back millions of years, but it is enough here to start from the most important Neanderthal site in Libya, namely the Cave of Haua Fteah' in eastern Libya. The cave is the largest cave in the Mediterranean basin, and one of the largest caves in the world; providing continuous archaeological record from 100,000 years ago to the present. According to C.B.M McBurney (Libya in History, p. 7), 90,000 years ago Eastern Libya was occupied by an exceptionally inventive and the most advanced group of Paleolithic hunters so far known to have existed at the time. Then around 40,000 years ago Libya was occupied by the large-brained Cro-Magnon -- the direct ancestors of the Berbers and the Iberians. Cultural evidence from southern Libya, particularly from Fezzan, the later home of the classical Garamantes Kingdom, goes back to more than 30,000 years. Around 12,000 years ago heavy rainfalls slowly turned the Sahara to lush-green land once more, and consequently a number of civilisations flourished in the area, leaving behind rich representations of what life once was, as preserved by the breathtaking treasures of the Sahara's prehistoric art.

 

2 - Ancient Egyptian Libya (3300 BC - 750 BC):

During the time of the Pharaohs Libya's borders extended all the way to the river Nile, as told by various geographers and historians including Strabo and Herodotus. These areas were inhabited by various Libyan tribes including the Temehu, the Tehenu, the  Ribu, and the Meshwesh. When Greek and Roman historians arrived in Libya and Egypt, the name Ribu became Libu, whence present day “Libya”, and the name Meshwesh became Masuch (Herodotus), Maksiz (Ptolemy) and Mazic (Latin inscriptions), whence present day Tamazight, and thus Imazighen: the indigenous inhabitants of North Africa as a whole.  The Palermo stone, the oldest document in the world, further illustrates the antiquity of the Libyans in Lower Egypt by listing a succession of Libyan pre-Dynastic kings and queens from Lower Egypt, long before the menace of Menes. Ever since, the Berbers were attempting to regain control over Lower Egypt and the Libyan Desert Oases. It seems that they had managed to find their way back into the Egyptian army of the Pharaohs, and some even rose to high positions in the palace; eventually leading the Libyans to regain complete control over Egypt about (ca. 945 BC) by establishing the Libyan Dynasties on the hands of the King Shishenq or Shishonk. The Libyan dynasties continued to rule until the 25th dynasty, shortly after which the Pharaohs disappeared from history altogether. (See Temehu for more on the ancient Egyptian period.)

 

3 - The Phoenician Period (1000 BC - 200 BC):

In the legend of Dido the Berber king Iarbas granted Dido as much land as could be covered by an ox-hide. The agreement was that the Phoenicians can stay and conduct business in the Mediterranean on peaceful terms -- and this they happily did. The Phoenicians quickly adopted Berber gods and goddesses, like the Libyan Goddess Tannit and the God Amon, and established several colonies in Libya, including Leptis Magna, Oea (Tripoli), Sabratha, and Carthage (Qert Hadasht ' The New Village'). By 517 BC, the powerful Carthage was the leading city in North Africa, controlling the entire North African coast from Tripolitania to the Atlantic Ocean, and eventually the Berber-Phoenician empire brought terror to the Romans' hearts. After Hannibal's daring 12-years siege of Rome, the Romans diverted the war to Carthage, where the Carthaginian government recalled Hannibal from Rome to defend the capital; only to be let down and loose control of the whole campaign. With Hannibal and Carthage out of the way, Rome was ready to spread terror around the Mediterranean world.

 

4 - The Greek Period:

The Greek colonists arrived in Eastern Libya in the 7th century BC, apparently on the advice given to them by their gods, and soon afterwards they colonised five cities in Cyrenaica, which later became known as the Pentapolis ('the Five Cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, Ptolemais, Taucheira and Berenice'). The Berber areas, further inland, remained free from Greek rule, many of which led a number of revolts against the Greeks. The Greeks also attempted to start another colony near Leptis Magna, but local Libyan and Carthaginian resistance proved to be fatal and as a result they retreated to Cyrenaica -- perhaps feeling closer to Apollo's home; whence Apollonia. About two hundred years later, the Greek influence began to dwindle and the last Greek ruler, Ptolemy Apion, finally surrendered Cyrenaica to Rome.

 

5 - The Roman Period:

The Roman invasions of Libya proved to be disastrous in many ways. Carthage was destroyed completely and then grazed to the ground. The marble columns and slabs that once held Carthage high in the sky were taken and sent to Rome for recycling. Shortly after the Carthaginian-Roman battle at Zama, the Berber kingdoms began to suffer the impact of the Roman invasions, and by 46 BC Julius Caesar deposed the final Numidian king, Juba I; and thereafter Tripolitania was incorporated into the province of Africa Proconsularis to begin the export of goods to Rome. By the end of the first century AD Rome had completed the pacification of Sirtica and Cyrenaica was handed over to them by the Greeks. Under the influence of the Libyan-Berber Roman emperor Septimius Severus Libya enjoyed a massive development as witnessed by the spectacular architectural development of Leptis Magna, Tripoli and Sabratha. Then in the 5th century (around 431 AD) Libya was taken over by the Germanic vandals, who remained in control until the arrival of the Muslims in the 7th century AD.

 

6 - The Muslim Period:

The arrival of Islam in North Africa began around 642 AD when Umr Ibn al-A's, under the command of the Caliph Umr I, arrived in Cyrenaica from Egypt and successfully established his base at Barqa. From the Green Mountain he then moved farther west and reached Tripolitania where he removed the last Byzantine garrisons and took control of Tripoli; effectively marking a new period of Libyan history which continues to this day. Then the Caliph sent Uqba Bin Nafi, who moved towards Fezzan in 663 and took Germa, the capital of the Garamantean Kingdom in the south of Libya, before he moved on the Roman province of Africa (Western Libya including today's Tunisia) in 670 AD, where he established another military base at Al Qayrawan. From this base he began to plan his attack on Byzantine Carthage (or what had remained of Carthage), which he finally took in 693 AD. Shortly after their arrival in Morocco the Muslims, under the command of the Berber general Tarek Ben Zeyyad, crossed the sea and moved on to Spain.

 

 

References & Further Resources:

  • Herodotus: the fourth, fifth, and sixth books.
  • Libya, Anthony Ham, Lonely Planet Publications, 2007.
  • C.B.M. McBurney, Libya in History.
  • BBC - Timeline: Libya, a chronology of key events in the history of Libya (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1398437.stm).
  • Encyclopædia Britannica: Libya (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-46562/Libya).
  • Encyclopædia Britannica: History of Libya (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339615/history-of-Libya)
  • C.B.M. McBurney, The Stone Age of Northern Africa.
  • C.B.M. McBurney, Prehistory And Pleistocene Geology In Cyrenaican Libya.
  • Wiedemann, A　Stelac of Libyan origin. In PSBA, xi. (1889), P. 227.
  • Mohammed Mostafa Bazama, "Libya fi al-Tarikh" - [Taatir al-Libiyyin fi al-H'adaratain al-Mesriyyah wa al-Yunaniyyah　wa taatiruhom　 beha] = "The Influense of the Libyans on the Egyptian and Greek civilizations and by them", Egypt.
  • Bates Oric. The Eastern Libyans. Macmillan and Co., Limited. 1914.
  • Reynolds, J. M., Oiwen　 Brogan and D. Smith,　"Inscriptions in the Libyan alphabet from Ghirza in Tripolitania", Antiquitv, 32, 112-115.1958.
  • Renouf, P. le P. Who were the Libyans? In PSBA, vol. xiii. (1891) P. 599 sqq.
  • Ayra, G. Tripoli e il suo clima. Turin . 1896.
  • Aymo, J. Les cris de Ghadames, Bull. de liaison saharienne, X, 1959, 21-26
  • Aelianus, Claudius. De animalium natura. Ed. Hercher. Leipizg . 1886.
  • Alexander Myndensis. Frag. ap. Athenaeum, Deipnos. v. 20.
  • Anonymous. History of the war between the United States　 and Tripoli, etc. Salem. 1806.

 

 


 
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Libyan Secret Service  جهاز المخابرات الليبية

 

One of the first systems to be created by the NTC after the liberation of Libya was the Libyan Intelligence System (جهاز المخابرات الليبية). Their foremost task at the time, according to the NTC, was to "root out Gaddafi's loyalists". Probably due to the nature of their organisation, nothing was heard of the organisation ever since, leading to the Guardian to report some sort of "confusion over who has control of Libya's security forces." 

 

Law 7/2012: Establishing The Libyan Intelligence System:

It was not until the 6th of February 2012 that the NTC had finally published some information about the secret organisation. In its Law 7 (of 2012), regarding the establishment of Libyan Intelligence System (جهاز المخابرات الليبية), there are 103 articles detailing the organisation's structure and its duties.

Article (1) states that the organisation is known as جهاز المخابرات الليبية ('Libyan Intelligence System'), and that its employees are those subject to Law 7 and others who are subject to Law 12/2012.

Article (2) states that the various departments and divisions of the organisation shall be determined by decisions issued by the president of the Libyan Intelligence System.

Article (3) states that the system's objective is to achieve Libya's security and safety via the following:

  • Protection of Libya's secrets and the prevention of their leakage.
  • Resisting foreign intelligence activity against the safety and security of Libya.
  • Surveillance of foreign bodies, individuals and organisations alike.
  • Follow up of suspicious activities hostile to the safety of Libya.
  • Counterintelligence.
  • Ensuring the safety of Libya's interests abroad.
  • Opposing hostile activities from hostile countries aiming at the identity, values and the principles of the Libyan society.
  • Exposing strategies and hostile plots that aim to destabilise the security and the national unity of Libya.


Article (4) calls for all other departments and organisations to cooperate with the Libyan Intelligence System to implement its objectives in accordance with its duties as assigned by the law.

Article (6) states that the head of the Intelligence System is a "Minister" and that his deputies are "Deputy Ministers"; the appointment of whom shall be decided by the government.

To read the full document, detailing 103 Articles, please download Law 7/2012:
pdf sign Law 7/2012: the Libyan Intelligence System (https://www.temehu.com/NTC/2012-laws/law-7-2012-regarding-the-libyan-secret-service.pdf)

 

 

The Head of The Libyan Intelligence & His Deputies:

On the 12 of February 2012, the NTC issued a second law, Law 17 (of 2012), which names the head of the Libyan Intelligence System and his deputies, as follows:

  • President: Mr. Salem Abd Assalam [Abdul Salam] Alhasi.
  • Deputy: Mr. Salem Mohammad Alaswad.
  • Deputy: Mr. Mustafa Mohammad Noah.
  • Deputy: Mr. Mosa Omar Krimah.

pdf sign Download Law 17/2012

 

 

War Updates



  • 08 April 2012: clashes broke out outside the Prime Minister's office, resulting in one person being killed and four injured. Even though the incident was reported by the media to have been started after militiamen from Nafusa Mountain arrived to "demand cash from the government", one eyewitness, who is a member of (معتقلي 17 فبراير), said they attended to protest peacefully about their injuries sustained during the war, for which to this day they have not received any treatment; constitutional recognition of Berber language; and an end to marginalisation. The government's spokesman and the minister of defence came out and took these demands and went back inside. He then adds that the trouble started only later, after another group arrived from Nafusa's Qala'a, Kikla and Yefren, in a convoy of at least 50 cars mounted with guns (many of whom had only one leg), and began firing in the air. Official sources say the protestors broke into the building, forcing the guards to call for help from Tripoli's militias working of the ministry of interior, after they evacuated the building. When the militias arrived, the eyewitness said, fighting broke out between the three groups (two militia groups and the ministerial guards), resulting in two people dead. In a news conference, these "demands" were in fact mentioned by the government spokesman Nasser el-Manee as "other demands", but failed to elaborate; while other Libyans commented that these protestors are in fact Gaddafi's loyalists who had such plans to foil the revolution long before liberation -- echoing some statements from international media in that Gaddafi's loyalists are now blamed for anything that is "oppositional". In a statement by the Prime Minister's Office (https://www.pm.gov.ly/news/693.html), the spokesman said the "revolution" took place against those who are using violence to impose their ideas and that "issues" can only be resolved via "dialogue"!? The usual mix of politics, throwing the lot in one pot, leaving law-abiding citizens in disarray.

  • 01 May 2012: Tripoli: clashes broke out in three area in the capital Tripoli: in Souq al-Joma fighters attacked a building belonging to the Foreign Ministry; in al-Hadba al-Khadra members of Tripoli Revolutionary Brigade clashed with Shara Ajdabiya Revolutionary Brigade; and in an area near the 24 December Street militiamen were firing indiscriminately at the Interior Ministry and residential buildings. A number of arrests were made, and there was no fatalities.


  • 01 May 2012: Tripoli: hundreds of armed fighters, said to be from the Union of Revolutionary Battalions, had surrounded the National Transitional Council headquarters in the capital, demanding greater participation in the interim government; seats in the new National Congress; and an amnesty for the fighters who took some "actions" during the war. Apparently, according to some sources, Mustafa Abdul Jalil agreed to meet with some members of the group including "al-Azari", the leader, and "Abdurrahman al-Gaja", and even agreed to their first demand, refused the second, and promised to consider the third. Other demands included an extension to the election registration period; proper care for the injured; and proper allocation of grants paid to the fighters.


  • 27 April 2012: Terrorism Begins in Free Libya: a massive blast punched a three-metres wide hole in the walls of the courthouse, in Meidan al-Shajara, Benghazi. "Government spokesman Mohammed al-Harizi told AFP no one was wounded and that . . . investigators had found graffiti at the scene expressing support for former leader Moamer Kadhafi." While according to Reuters, there were three explosions at the building, wounding one person and damaging nearby buildings. Apparently the early-morning explosion(s), reporters said, came just hours after the arrival of NTC officials to hold their regular monthly meeting. To read more and view photos please click here. The fact that the packages were detonated around 5 am (05:00) indicates that the bombers had no intention of inflicting human casualties!!! A few days later, official sources said five suspects from the Gadadfa tribe were arrested, but no names were given! One source said that Gaddafi's loyalists now seem to get the blame for any opposition to the ruling council!!!


  • 26 April 2012: one person dead and four injured in Benghazi in clashes sparked by a "prison-break attempt", which security sources blamed "on radical Islamists".


  • 20 April 2012: fighting returned to Kufra: 3 people died and 17 were injured in clashes between government forces and Tebu locals. Tebu leader Issa Abdelmajid Mansour told AFP that the Tebu were attacked on Friday the 20th of April 2012 by the "Libya Shield" brigade -- apparently a peacekeeping military unit working for the Libyan Ministry of Defence. The fighting started after a man from the Zwai tribe "shot dead a Tebu man", to which the Tebu retaliated by firing at cars that went their way, Libya Shield said.


  • 10 April 2012: the headquarters of the Libyan government (the Council of Ministers) came under attack by armed groups, who fired shots inside the Prime Minister's office. The government denounced the attack as an attack on the sovereignty of Libya and urged all armed groups to realise the dangers of employing "arms" and "blackmail" to achieve one's goals. The motive apparently was no more than protesting against the NTC's decision to stop the "financial grants" allocated to  fighters. Earlier reports published by the government showed wide-spread corruption regarding the grants and the allocation of grants, where fighters's names were found to be in more than one list; and therefore the decision was only temporary to bring "fraud" and "draining the country's resources" under control. One solution presented was to transfer the grants directly to the bank accounts of those who were found to be eligible.


  • 31 March 2012 (Saturday): tension returned to the Black Crescent area after a group of armed men from Alassa, Regdalin and Ejmeil attacked a group of officially-recognised border guards from Zuwarah near Alassa (by the Tunisian border). According to Abdulaziz Bousennouga, the local fighters came across a smuggling point at Zahert Alkhos, via which smugglers smuggle illegal items including alcohol, petrol and other "prohibited items". Doing their job, they closed the smuggling point. The smugglers then went on to open another point, located around 20km from Alassa, to continue their illegal activities. When the Zuwarah unit came across the new smuggling point, they took over the point and confiscated a number of goods. Some of the smugglers however managed to return to Ejmeil, reported the takeover, and returned with a large force of 1000 men, mostly civilians, and waited for the Zuwarah unit to return from Nalut. When the border guards arrived at the site, they were attacked, kidnapped and taken to Regdalin, where they were beaten and tortured, before they were transferred to Ejmeil for further torture and abuse. It is not known exactly how many were kidnapped, with some sources say 25 men, while others say 21, but according to Riyad Bushwashi, Zuwarah's only member at the NTC, 22 men were arrested. One member of the Zuwarah group, who had managed to escape, reported that some of the attackers were carrying the green flag and called Zuwarah's fighters "Nato's agents". The hostages were released on Sunday the 1st of April, with the help of Ejmeil's pro-NTC fighters from "The Protection of Ejmeil Militia"; but when they reached Zuwarah, and showed signs of being tortured, fighting broke out once more around 11 pm on Sunday night. Using tanks, rockets, missiles and other heavy weapons, shells from both sides began to hammer civilian areas indiscrimanately. The shelling continued all night and for most of Monday, and is still going on as of today the 3rd of April 2012. The casualties were taken to Sabratha's hospital, while the more serious cases were taken to Tripoli, since most of the regional hospitals are either not functioning at all or else are poorly equipped. However, it is important to point out that a number of brigades from Zuwarah had refused to take part in the fight against their Libyan brothers and sisters. The elders of Zuwarah urged the fighters to stop shelling indiscriminately, but they were told to disappear, just as they were told to go away about this time last year.


  • 26 March 2012: (Monday): nearly 50 people were killed during the first three days of clashes in Sabha between local militias and Tebu fighters, apparently after a local resident was killed in a dispute over a car. However, as usually is the case, one can never be sure of the facts, since one NTC's spokesperson told reporters that the violence had begun from a dispute over payment for former fighters. By Sunday 100 more lost their lives, giving a total of 150, and nearly 475 were wounded.  It was reported that the Libyan army had sent 600 soldiers to help bring the situation under control, while NTC spokesperson Nasser al-Manee said 3,000 soldiers  had been sent to Sebha. However, NTC's Abdulmajid Saif al-Nasser said he was resigning in protest because  the NTC was not doing enough to stop the violence [1].  On Wednesday the 28th of March 2012 representatives from both sides were reported to have agreed a ceasefire, only for fighting to resume hours later. A second ceasefire was announced by the NTC on Saturday the 31st of March 2012. The transitional Prime Minister el-Keib flew to Sabha on Sunday in an attempt to diffuse the tension. According to Reuters [3], "Keib was then heckled by a man who was shouting that the government was late in acting to stop the clashes and called on the military to deal with the Tibu. Keib tried to talk to the heckler but his security detail ushered him into a car to head onto his next meeting, with Tibu elders".
    [1]: http://www.montrealgazette.com/news/Libya+struggles+deadly+militia+clashes/6369805/story.html
    [2]: http://www.africasia.com/services/news_mideast/article.php?ID=CNG.5ba00d350acdc99f903fb64f33d3cb13.7e1
    [3]: http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/01/libya-clashes-idUSL6E8F10ST20120401


  • 24 March 2012: armed fighters stormed the Rixos Hotel, in Tripoli. The gunmen fired shots into the air, breaking some items and punching a hole in the ceiling, but no one was hurt. The armed men had detained the Turkish manager of the hotel, apparently, when a Zintan member of the militia was asked to leave the hotel "over an unpaid bill dating back to September", Reuters wrote.


  • 18 March 2012: clashes erupted in the capital between armed residents from Tripoli’s Abu Selim area and an armed militia from Zintan. The two sides fired automatic rifles at each other, leaving one Zintan fighter dead. The fight came to an end after the local militia leaders secured a cease-fire, Mohammed Abu-Gheniya told reporters:
    http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/clashes-erupt-in-libyan-capital-between-militia-and-residents-of-pro-gadhafi-area-1-killed/2012/03/18/gIQAXpkaKS_story.html


  • 10 March 2012: Libyan Interior Minister Fawzi Abdel Aal has warned all armed fighters to lay down their arms, or face the full force of the law. The minister said the police force now includes 25,000 officers, and that the militias must now make themselves "legitimate" or else the "lions"  will face them. Fighters and tribal leaders had defied a number of deadlines in the past few months.
    http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/10/us-libya-militias-idUSBRE8290DA20120310


  • 07 March 2012: Egyptian police believe thousands of weapons  are being smuggled monthly into Egypt from Libya across the desert borders, including ammunition, assault rifles, machine-guns, RPG launchers, small caliber rockets, and shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missiles. http://www.shabablibya.org/news/the-return-of-the-king


  • 04 March 2012: two British journalists, Nicholas Davies and Gareth Montgomery-Johnson, were arrested by Misratha's Swehli Militia about two weeks ago. The two journalists, working for Iran's English-language Press TV, were detained while filming at 2:00 am in a "sensitive area" in the capital Tripoli. The commander reported that the journalists were initially "tracked" after suspicious behaviour, and were arrested for entering Libya without a visa and for "possible espionage" (AFP). [Update: the two journalist were later handed over to the interim government, and then released and returned home on the 19th of March 2012.]

  • 27-28 February 2012: Ras Ejdir land border with Tunisia was closed temporarily, due to a small incident. Unlike what has been reported by the media, sources from Zuwarah confirmed there was no heavy fighting at the border, no casualties, and the whole fight did not last 20 minutes. Apparently a unit "claiming to belong" to the "Libyan military police" attempted to take control of the border point from the forces of Zuwarah; but when local commanders from Zuwarah contacted the NTC headquarters in Tripoli to confirm the legality of the takeover, the NTC informed them that they knew nothing about this "police unit" and that this unit had no orders from the NTC. Zuwarah's forces then succeeded in expelling the "attacking unit" within 15 minutes, without any casualties from either side.


  • 15 February 2012: a cell of ten loyalists was arrested in Sabha. Weapons and explosives were found with the loyalists, said to be planning to destabilise Sabha and the surrounding areas during the 17th of February anniversary.


  • 15 February 2012: nearly 30,000 Libyan fighters took part in a military parade in the capital Tripoli, in anticipation of the first anniversary of the 17th of February. The force included fighters from the various militias of the western region and official units from the Military Council. The Libyan Air Force is also operational and now is patrolling the border areas as well as Libya's air space, the NTC said.


  • 15 February 2012: Libyan Security Forces said they discovered a number of Sam 7 missiles and rockets hidden in a farm near Benghazi. They also said they are investigating the discovery.


  • 14 February 2012: Tibesti Hotel in Benghazi was attacked while the Prime Minister el-Keib was inside the building. The armed group, firing in the air, entered the building and surrounded the wing in which el-keib was staying in the first floor, and demanded from the prime minster to integrate the unites they represent in the national army and grant them monthly wages. Libya.tv says its source (Libya Today) said el-Keib have signed the lists that were given to him by the fighters.


  • 13 February 2012: Terror Cell Arrested: Zintan fighters have arrested a "terror cell" in Ben Gheshshir, Tripoli. The cell was made of immigrants from the "Eastern Sahara" who spoke "Egyptian dialect" and had fake documents. They were said to be trafficking in drugs, alcohol and arms, and plotting to carry out a number of terrorist attacks to destabilise the capital.


  • 12 February 2012: Kufra: intermittent fighting is also being reported from around the southeastern Kufra area. According to the Chief of the Libyan Army, Yousef Manqoush, the situation will be brought under control via peaceful means. It was said that the fighting still taking place in Kufra is between the Zwai (or Azwaya) tribe and the Tebu. So far nearly 17 people were killed (9 Zwai and 8 Tebu) and 20 injured on Sunday and Monday. Five more people died on Tuesday during the third day of clashes. According to the same report, "Mohammed al-Harizi, spokesman for the NTC, confirmed Tuesday's clashes but said they were of "low intensity and between smugglers helped by foreign elements and thuwar (revolutionaries)."


  • 10 February 2012: Tripoli: Zintan fighters from Jihad Militia in Tripoli have arrested a "5th Column sleeper cell" in the capital. The cell was reported to have been buying weapons and rockets to use to attack civilians in Tripoli. Official sources did warn of the possibility of terrorist attacks by the sleeper cells during the forthcoming anniversary of 17th of February 2012.


  • 25 January 2012: "Security sector workers say theft, infighting and murder are on the rise . . . Last week, two grenade attacks were reported in central Tripoli and gunfights occur on a near-daily basis," Reuters wrote
    (http://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFTRE80O19U20120125).


  • 22-23 January 2012: Bani Walid: militias loyal to the  NTC were driven out of Bani Walid in a gunbattle, after locals refused to recognise the "imposed council", they said.  Four NTC fighters and eight residents were killed. The NTC now set up check points around the city, with reports of planes flying overhead. Heavy presence of units loyal to the new Libyan Army is noticeable in and around Bani Walid. People say green flags were seen in the town, but Reuters said it found none when its reporters visited the area, and that the locals said their protest has nothing to do with "loyalists". Apparently, about 200 elders  from the town decided to abolish an NTC-appointed local council and appoint their own council instead. On Wednesday the NTC was reported to have recognised the new local government nominated and dominated by the tribes of Bani Walid.


  • 21 January 2012: a gun fight broke out between two local militia groups in Zuwarah, after one group refused to hand over one of their fighters who had attacked the border point at Ras Ejdir. Heavy weapons were used during the fight, but eventually  the perpetrator was ordered to leave the unit (sheltering him) and fighting subsequently stopped.


  • 20 January 2012: protesters in Benghazi broke their way into the headquarters of the National Transitional Government (NTG) in Benghazi. Smashing Abdul Jalil's parked Toyota Land Cruiser outside, they threw "stones", broke glass windows, and even threw a grenade, as they stormed the building  and demanded the resignation of the transitional "government". According to Reuters, when protesters hurled empty plastic bottles at the leader of the NTC, his security forces responded with fire tear gas." 


  • 13 January 2012: a fight broke out between Yefren and Assabia. Victims from Assabia spoke to Reuters of severe torture and beating to death committed by the forces of Gharyan.
    http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/25/us-libya-lawlessness-idUSTRE80O18P20120125


  • 4 January 2012: 2 Mustafa Abdel Jalil, the head of the NTC, warned Libyans of "civil war" breaking out in Libya unless the armed militias are brought under control. He said either the Libyans unite and end confrontation or split and there will be a civil war.


  • 3 January 2012: a gun battle broke out between former fighters from Tripoli and dozens of fighters from Misratha, ending with four dead. Smaller gun fights also broke out in Ejmeil and Lajilat.


  • 1 January 2012: the NTC arrested a loyalist cell in Tripoli for plotting to blow up Tripoli's power grid on New Year's eve, and for attempting to re-launch the state TV channel Aljamahiriya.

    Hundreds of armed groups, reported sleeper cells, organised gangs, and armed "youngsters" are still heavily armed, and fighting still breaks out here and there, now and then, including along the once presumed safe coast. It seems that the NTC still is unable to bring the situation under control. Many liberated areas are still surrounded by "sleeper loyalists" who still are intent on destabilising the country, especially in the Black Crescent, Tawergha, Wershfana, Bani Walid, Sabha and around the Kufra area. Residents and reporters speak of  unexploded bombs, rockets, missiles and landmines still littering war sites from across Libya, including a park inside Tripoli itself. Travellers are strongly advised to stay on the main roads, and keep away from sand where landmines may be still buried.  The NTC is issuing "licenses" to registered militias -- the armed groups that have registered with the ministry of defence to operate under the approval of the NTC, with the aim of integrating them into the national army or the police force. The chief of the Libyan army was reported to have said that nearly 12,000 "NTC fighters" will join the  force, 5,000 of whom are already part of the Libyan army.


  • 31 December 2011: an ongoing trouble between the Berbers of Zuwarah and the Arabs of Ejmeil and Regdalin along the Black Crescent had resulted in a number of skirmishes and fights. Whenever the Berbers attempted to reach their farms (located all around these Arab villages), they were attacked, robed, and left to flee. The situation was brought under control, but reports from Zuwara say clashes still take place. On the 31st of December 2011, two weeks after the border was brought under control, Berbers from Zuwarah were attacked again inside Tunisia.


  • 31 December 2011: the secretary of the Libyan Security in Zliten was reported by Libya.tv to have revealed a loyalist cell in Zliten with the aim of destabilising the area, and that the loyalists were in contact with Saadi in Niger, as well as with loyalists in other areas including Wershfana, Bani Walid and in Tunisia.


  • 11 December 2011: clashes also broke out between Zintan and neighbouring Mashasha forces in Wames (190 km from Tripoli) and Shaqiqa: the fight between the militias lasted two days and was stopped after an intervention from the NTC. Houses in Wames were damaged by rocket or/and artillery fire. 


  • 10 December 2011:  a gun battle broke out when armed men in vehicles belonging to the new Libyan national army tried to take control of Tripoli's international airport. Mukhtar al-Akhdar, commander of a militia unit from Zintan, contacted the NTC who said they knew nothing about the men who attempted to take over the airport. Analysts said the event may have been linked to the earlier (on the day) attempt on Hafter's life.


  • 6 December 2011: a small fight also broke out between Rujban and Tripoli fighters.


  • 2 December 2011: a militia base reduced to ruin and an NTC official killed in Janzur (near Tripoli) by fighters loyal to the Zintan forces. The local fighters in retaliation burnt the headquarters of Zintan forces in Janzur and destroyed their offices and vehicles.

 

 

 

 

February War Statistics

 

(1)

"Libya operations details": from the Guardian:

Libya war statistics listed by participating country and includes number of sorties, missiles used and bombs dropped, at:

https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?key=0AonYZs4MzlZbdFY5dFNsZDdfamdPQUdfbW5HcVR6eUE&hl=en_US

 

(2)

"Nato operations in Libya": from the Guardian:

"How many Nato attacks took place over Libya - and what did they hit? Here's the most comprehensive analysis yet of who did what", at:

https://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2011/may/22/nato-libya-data-journalism-operations-country

 

(3)

"Nato Libya Attacks": from the Guardian:

Day by day details, from 11/04/2011 to 20/10/2011, at:

https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?authkey=CPeKjPMB&key=0Aq-FnOoJcl-ndG9KUHFFNDgyNENWRW5TTUl6QnFDcXc&hl=en_US&authkey=CPeKjPMB#gid=0

 

(4)

Casualties of the 2011 Libya War, from Wikipedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties_of_the_2011_Libyan_civil_war


 
 
 


List of Libyan Embassies

 

In late 1970s Gaddafi renamed all Libyan embassies the "Peoples Bureaus". These were now reinstituted according to international convention: embassies. Many of these "bureaus" remained loyal to the Libyan government during the early months of the February war. On the other hand other embassies declared their alliance to the NTC, one by one, as government forces gradually withdrew from the scene. The British expelled the Libyan staff of the bureau and handed over the embassy to the NTC. The US State Department also handed over the Libyan Embassy in Washington to the NTC in August 2011.  Some of the old websites of the "Libyan bureaus" are still online but they no longer represent any authority, and most probably they will disappear once their hosting services expire. Many of the following addresses are those of the old embassies. Most of the new embassies resumed duty from the same offices, but the contact details of some of them were changed. Some of the new contact details are already included in this list, with the rest to be updated in the coming months.


UN:
Mission of Libya To The United Nations
Address: 309 East 48th Street
New York
Tel: +1 212 752 5775
Fax: +1 212 593 4787


United Kingdom: London:

Address of Libyan Embassy in London:
15 Knightsbridge
London SW1X 7LY
Tel: +44 207 201 8280
Fax: +44 207 245 0588
(http://libyanembassy.org/)

The address of the previous Libyan "Peoples Bureau" in London:
Address: 61-62 Ennismore Gardens
London SW7 1NH
Tel: +44 207 589 6120
Fax: +44 207 589 6120

 

United States of America:
Libyan Liaison Office
2600 Virginia Avenue NW, Suite 705,
Washington DC 20037
Tel: 202-944-9601
Fax 202-944-9606
Website: http://www.embassyoflibyadc.org/

2600 Virginia Avenue, NW Suite 711
Washington DC, 20037
Tel: 202-944-9601
Fax: +1 202-944-9606

 

France:
Libyan Embassy in France:
Address: 2 rue Charles Lamoureux
Paris
Tel: +33 1 47047160
Fax: +33 1 47047160

Libyan Embassy in France:
3, villa Copernic
Paris 75116
Tel: 33 1 40677575
Fax: 33 1 40671642
Consulate General:
424 rue Paradis
Marseille 13008
Tel : 33 91.71.50.60

 

Australia:
Libyan Embassy in Australia:
50 Culgoa Circuit, ACT 2606
O'Malley, Canberra
Tel: +61 (02) 6290 7900
Fax: +61 (02) 6286 4522

 

Canada:
Libyan Embassy in Canada
Address: 81 Metcalfe Street, Suite 1000 Ottawa, Ontario K1P 6K7
Ottawa
Tel: +613 230-0919
Fax: +613 230-0683
Website: http://www.libya-canada.org

 

Russia:
Libyan Embassy in Russia:
Address: Ulitsa Mosfilmovskaya 38
Moscow
Tel: +3330545-6
Fax: +3330545-6

 

China:
Libyan Embassy in China:
Address: Sanlitun Dongliujie
Beijing 100600
Tel: 10 6532 3278-3891
Fax:10 65323891



India:
Libyan Embassy in India:
Address: 22 Golf Link
New Delhi
Tel: +91 11 469 7717
Fax: +91 11 469 7771


Japan:
Libyan Embassy in Japan:
Address: 10-14 Daikanyama-cho
Shibuya-ku, Post Code:150
Tokyo
Tel: +81 3 34770701
Fax: +81 3 34770701


Germany:
Libyan Embassy in Germany
Podbielskiallee 42, 14195
Berlin
Tel. +49 (30) 20 05 96-0
Fax. +49 (30) 20 05 96

 

Spain:
Libyan Embassy in Spain:
Address: Pisuerga, 12 28002
Madrid
Tel: +91 56460 06
Fax: +9156439 86

 

Italy:
Libyan Embassy in Italy:
Address: Via Nomentana, 365
00162
Rome
Tel: +39 (6) 86320951, 8600558
Fax: +39 (6) 86320951, 86205473



Sweden:
Libyan Embassy in Sweden:
Address: Stockholm
Tel: +468143435
Fax: +468143435

 

Denmark:
Libyan Embassy in Denmark:
Address: Rosenvaengets Hovedvei 4 DK-2100 Copenhagen East
Copenhagen
Tel: +45 352 63611
Fax: +45 352 63611

 

Belgium:
Libyan Embassy in Brussels, Belgium
Av. Victoria, 28, 1050 Bruxelles
Brussel
Tel: 2-649.21.13, 2-649.37.37
Fax: 2-640.90.76



Greece:
Libyan Embassy in Greece:
Address: Vyronos 13
Athens
Tel: +30 1 6471842
Fax: +30 1 6471842

 

Switzerland:
Libyan Embassy in Switzerland:
Address: Bern
Tel: 41313513076
Fax: 41313513076

 

Netherlands:
Libyan Embassy in The Netherlands
Address: Parkweg 15   P.C. 2585
Tel: +31 70 3558886
Fax: +31 70 3558886

 

Austria:
Libyan Embassy in Austria:
Address: Volksb?ro (Botschaft), Blaasstra 33
A-1190
Vienna
Tel:  +43 1 3677639
Fax: +43 1 3677601

 

Portugal:
Libyan Embassy in Portugal:
Address: Av. Descobertas 24
Lisbon
Tel: +351 1 3016301
Fax: +351 1 3012378

 

Czech Republic:
Libyan Embassy in Czech Republic:
Address: Na Baste SV. Jiri 7 Prague 6
Prague
Tel: +420 2 33324188
Fax: +420 2 33324160

 

Poland:
Libyan Embassy in Poland:
Address: ul. Kryniczna 2, 03-934
Warsaw
Tel: +48 (22) 6174822, 6174883
Fax: +48 (22) 6175091

 

Bulgaria:
Libyan Embassy in Bulgaria:
Address: Mladost 1 District Saharov Blvd., Residency 1
Sofia
Tel: +359 9743556, 9743156
Fax: +359 9743273

 

Croatia:
Libyan Embassy in Croatia:
Address: Gornje Prekrizje 51B, 10000
Zagreb
Tel: +385-1 4629250
Fax: +385-1 4629279

 

Romania:
Libyan Embassy in Romania:
Address: Bd Lascar Catargiu Nr.15, Sector 1
711 111
Bucharest
Tel: +40 (21) 2127832, 2125705, 2125706
Fax: +40 (21) 3120232


Tunisia:
Libyan Embassy in Tunis
48 Bis Rue Du Ler Juin
Tunis
Consulate General:
35 Rue Alexander Dumas Sfax, Tunisia.

 

Qatar:
Libyan Embassy in Qatar:
Address: Box 574
Doha
Tel: +974 421776
Fax: +974 421776

 

Kuwait:
Libyan Embassy in Daya, Kuwait:
Box 21460 - 13075
Da'ya, Kuwait
Tel: 2575183 - 2575184
Fax: 2575182

 

Saudi Arabia:
Libyan Embassy in Saudi Arabia:
Address: Wourod Area - ben shaker street P.O. Box 94365
Jeddah
Tel:  +966 1 4544511
Fax: +966 1 4567513

 

South Korea:
Libyan Embassy in South Korea:
Address: 4-5 Hannam-dongYongsan-ku
Seol
Tel: +82 2 7976001
Fax: +82 2 7976007

 

Philippines:
Libyan Embassy in The Philippines
Address: 2416 Bougainvilla Rd Dasmarinas Village Makati City
Manila
Tel: +63 2 8173461


Fax: +63 2 8173461

Indonesia:
Libyan Embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia
Jl. Pekalongan #24, Menteng
Jakarta 10310
Tel: 6221-335.308 /-335.754
Fax: 6221-335.726

 

Pakistan:
Libyan Embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan
12,Margalla Road,F-8/3
Islamabad
Tel: 851974, 851880
Fax: 261459


Argentina:
Libyan Embassy in Argentina
Address: Cazadores 2166
Buenos Aires
Tel: +54 114 7883745
Fax: -+54 114 7883760


Brazil:
Libyan Embassy in Brazil:
Address: QI 15, ch?cara 26, 71600-750
Brasilia
Tel:+55 (61) 2486710
Fax: +55 (61) 2480598


 
 
  • Constitutions
  • Libyan Kingdom Constitution
  • Libyan Jamahiriya Constitution
  • NTC Constitutional Declaration

 

Libyan Constitutions

 

 

 

  1. Kingdom of Libya Constitution
  2. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Constitution
  3. NTC Draft Constitutional Declaration

 

The Libyan constitution, like any other, changes whenever a new government completely replaces the previous one. This page will provide information about the constitution of the Kingdom of Libya (under King Idris); the constitution of Gaddafi's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; and the (temporary) Constitutional Declaration of the interim National Transitional Council (NTC) of Libya. This allows the reader to compare the three constitutions and see how they change with time.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Constitution


According to the summary report prepared by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in accordance with paragraph 15 (c) of the annex to Human rights Council resolution 5/1 (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya):

"1. Human Rights Solidarity (HRS)2 reported that there was no written constitution in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. A temporary "Constitutional Declaration" was adopted by the Revolutionary Council on 11 December 1969. On 2 March 1977, the Declaration of the People’s Authority launched a new political system whose ideals are stipulated in a series of three small booklets known as the Green Book. HRS added that the absence of a constitution facilitated the adoption of contradictory legislation and undermined protection against human rights violations. In the absence of a clear constitution, that defines the branches of government and regulates the relationship between them -i.e. separation of powers- security agencies operated with impunity."

Download the full Human Rights Council Report regarding the persecution of both the Berber and Tebo people of Libya by Gaddafi's government.

 

 

Preamble

The Revolutionary Command Council, in the name of the Arab people in Libya, who pledged to restore their freedom, enjoy the wealth of their land, live in a society in which every loyal citizen has the right to prosperity and well-being, who are determined to break the restraints which impede their growth and their development, who will stand with their brothers from all parts of the Arab Nation in the struggle for the restoration of every inch of Arab land desecrated by imperialism and for the elimination of all obstacles which prevent Arab unity from the Gulf to the Ocean. In the name of the Libyan people who believe that peace cannot be achieved without justice, who are conscious of the importance of strengthening the ties which unite them with all the people of the world who are struggling against imperialism; who understand fully that the alliance of reaction and imperialism is responsible for their underdevelopment despite the abundance of their natural resources, and for the corruption which spread through the governmental apparatus; who are conscious of their responsibility in the establishment of a national, democratic, progressive, and unitary government. In the name of the popular will, expressed on September 1 by the Armed Forces who overthrew the monarchical regime and proclaimed the Libyan Arab Republic in order to protect and strengthen the Revolution until it attains its objectives of freedom, socialism, and unity. The present Constitutional Proclamation is made to provide a basis for the organization of the state during the phase of completion of the national and democratic revolution, until a permanent constitution is prepared, defining the objectives of the Revolution and outlining the future course.

 

Chapter I The State

Article 1 [Principles]
Libya is an Arab, democratic, and free republic in which sovereignty is vested in the people. The Libyan people are part of the Arab nation. Their goal is total Arab unity. The Libyan territory is a part of Africa. The name of the country is the Libyan Arab Republic.

Article 2 [State Religion, Language]
Islam is the religion of the State and Arabic is its official Language. The state protects religious freedom in accordance with established customs.

Article 3 [Solidarity, Family]
Social solidarity constitutes the foundation of national unity. The family, based on religion, morality, and patriotism, is the foundation of society.

Article 4 [Work]
Work in the Libyan Arab Republic is a right, a duty, and an honour for earnable-bodied citizen. Public functions are the duty of those who are put in charge of them. The goal of the state employees in discharging their duties is to serve the people.

Article 5 [Equality]
All citizens are equal before the law. Article 6 [Socialism] The aim of the state is the realization of socialism through the application of social justice which forbids any form of exploitation. The state endeavors, through the edification of a socialist community, to achieve self-sufficiency in production and equity in distribution. Its aim is to eliminate peacefully the disparities between social classes and to attain a society of prosperity. Its inspiration is its Arabic and Islamic heritage, humanitarian values and the specific conditions of the Libyan society.

Article 7 [Economy]
The state will endeavor to liberate the national economy from dependence and foreign influence, and to turn it into a productive national economy, based on public ownership by the Libyan people and on private ownership by individual citizens.

Article 8 [Property]
Public ownership is the basis of the development of society, of its growth and of selfsufficiency in production. Private ownership, if it is non-exploitative, is protected. Expropriation will take place only in accordance with the law. Inheritance is a right which will be governed by the Islamic Shari'a.

Article 9 [Planning]
The state will institute a system of national planning covering economic, social, and cultural aspects. Cooperation between the private and public sectors will be necessary for the achievement of the goals of economic development.

Article 10 [No Titles] The creation of honorary titles and civilian ranks is prohibited. All titles granted to the members of the former dynasty and to followers are abolished.

Article 11 [Asylum]
The extradition of political refugees is prohibited.

Article 12 [Home] The home is inviolable and shall not be entered or searched except under the circumstances and conditions defined by the law.

Article 13 [Expression]
Freedom of Opinion is guaranteed within the limits of public interest and the principles of the Revolution.

Article 14 [Education]
Education is a right and a duty for all Libyans. It is compulsory until the end of the primary school. The State guarantees this right through the establishment of schools, institutes, and universities, and of pedagogical and cultural institutions in which education is free. The creation of private schools will also be regulated by law. The State is particularly anxious to enhance the physical, intellectual, and moral development of the youth.

Article 15 [Health]
Health care is a right guaranteed by the State through the creation of hospitals and health establishments in accordance with the law.

Article 16 [Defense]
Defense of the homeland is a sacred duty. Military service is an honor for the Libyan people.

Article 17 [Taxation]
No tax will be imposed, modified, or cancelled and no one will be exempted from paying taxes except in accordance with the law.

Chapter II System of Government

Article 18 [Revolutionary Command Council]
The Revolutionary Command Council constitutes the supreme authority in the Libyan Arab Republic. It will exercise the powers attached to national sovereignty, promulgate laws and decrees, decide in the name of the people the general policy of the State, and make all decisions it deems necessary for the protection of the Revolution and the regime.

Article 19 [President, Council of Ministers]
(1) The Revolutionary Command Council appoints the President and the Council of Ministers. It may appoint deputies for the Prime Minister and Ministers without portfolio. It may discharge the Premier and Ministers and accept their resignation. But the resignation of the Premier carries with it the resignation of all Ministers. (2) The Council of Ministers insures the execution of the general policy of the State in accordance with the decisions of the Revolutionary Command Council. (3) The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible before the Revolutionary Command Council. Each Minister is responsible for his department before the Prime Minister.

Article 20 [Promulgation]
The Council of Ministers shall study and prepare all projects of law within the framework of the general policy outlined by the Revolutionary Command Council. It will then forward the proposed texts to the Revolutionary Command Council for consideration and promulgation.

Article 21 [Budget]
Matters relative to the general budget of the State are instituted by law and those concerning the final accounts are subject to ratification by the Revolutionary Command Council.

Article 22 [Joint Meetings]
The Revolutionary Command Council may, at the request of its President or two of its members, hold a joint meeting with the Council of Ministers.

Article 23 [War]
The Revolutionary Command Council shall declare war, conclude and ratify treaties and agreements, unless it authorizes the Council of Ministers to do so.

Article 24 [Martial Law]
The Revolutionary Command Council shall make decisions concerning martial law or the state of emergency whenever there is a threat to the internal or external security of the State and whenever the Revolutionary Command Council deems it necessary for the protection and defense of the Revolution.

Article 25 [Emergency]
The Revolutionary Command Council shall make decisions concerning martial law or the state of emergency whenever there is a threat to the internal or external security of the State and whenever the Revolutionary Command Council deems it necessary for the protection and defense of the Revolution.

Article 26 [Armed Forces]
The State alone is empowered to establish the Armed Forces who shall protect the people and insure the security of the country, its republican system, and national unity.

Article 27 [Judiciary]
The aim of judicial decisions shall be the protection of the principles of the community and the rights, dignity, and freedom of individuals.

Article 28 [Judges]
Judges shall be independent. In the exercise of their functions, they shall be free from any authority except that of the law and their conscience.

Article 29 [Verdicts]
Verdicts are pronounced and executed in the name of the people.

Article 30 [Recourse]
Everyone has the right to resort to the Courts in accordance with the law.

Article 31 [Criminal Justice]
(a) Crime and penalty are only determined by law. (b) The penalty is personal. (c) The defendant shall be presumed innocent until proven guilty. All necessary guarantees for the exercise of his defense shall be provided. The accused or imprisoned shall not be subjected to mental or physical harm.

Chapter III Miscellaneous And Transistory Provisions

Article 33 [Old Constitution]
The Constitution of 7 Oct 1951, its amendments, and all related consequences are annulled.

Article 34 [Old Law]
All existing provisions of laws, decrees, and regulations which are not in conflict with the provisions set forth in this constitutional proclamation remain in effect. References to the King and Parliament in these laws shall be regarded as references to the Revolutionary Command Council and reference to the kingdom shall be regarded as reference to the Republic.

Article 35 [New Laws]
Decisions, statements, and orders issued by the Revolutionary Command Council since Sep 1969 and before the issue of this constitutional proclamation shall have the power of law and supersede all contrary provisions. They can be annulled or amended only in accordance with the procedure defined in the present constitutional proclamation.

Article 36 [Promulgation]
New laws shall be published in the Official Journal and they shall be in effect at the date of publication unless it is otherwise stated.

Article 37 [Permanent Constitution]
(1) The present constitutional proclamation shall be in effect until a permanent constitution is issued. It will be amended by the Revolutionary Command Council only in case of necessity and in the interest of the Revolution. (2) This Proclamation is to be published in the Official Journal.

 

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