Wildlife in The Sahara

Prehistoric Sahara

Hundreds of millions of years ago the Sahara was covered by great seas. With time, the seas slowly drifted away, leaving behind a massive expanse of searing desert, much bigger than the one we have today. Around 800,000 years ago, the Sahara was hot, damp and covered with swamps, lakes, rivers and vegetation everywhere. This period of heavy rain lasted for hundreds of thousands of years. Ever since, the Sahara comes and goes just as ice ages do elsewhere. One of these most recent cycles, between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago, brought heavy rainfalls to the area, and gradually transformed the Sahara into wet and lush-green land, covered with rivers and lakes, hippopotami, rhinoceroses, crocodiles and elephants.

Around the same time, about 12,000 years ago, the same heavy rainfall flooded Lake Victoria and created the river Nile, thereby creating a new home for several Saharan refugees, including the ancient Egyptians, after the Sahara turned dry again between 7000 and 5000 years ago. However, according to an article published in the Independent Newspaper (September 8, 1999), titled: "Tilt of Earth's axis turned Sahara into a desert", scientists have found that the Sahara was abruptly transformed from fertile land into a desert after the Earth underwent one of its periodic changes in orientation between 9000 and 6000 years ago; during which its tilt lessened from 24.14 degrees off vertical to its present 23.45 degrees, and its closest position to the sun gradually shifted from July to January.

The Sahara today is the largest desert in the world, estimated to be between seven and nine million square kilometres (7-9m km2) - that is about one third of Africa. Winters in the subtropical north can be very cold where temperatures can fall below freezing point, as opposed to the mild tropical south, where rain falls more during the summer than it does in the north. Similarly, temperatures are high during the day and low at night.The highest temperature in the world was recorded in Libya on the 13th of September 1922, in el-Azizia, close to Tripoli: a staggering 136.4 degree Fahrenheit (or 58 degrees Celsius). Although in the summer temperatures reach 50 degrees Celsius in the shade and in the winter can reach -9 (minus nine), the average year round temperature is about 30 degrees Celsius.

Citrullus colocynthis. Berber names: Alkhad (Tuareg); Tadjalt.

Ground-creeping desert plant, with inedible gourds, the size of small melons. The milky sap of these gourds is used as a remedy for scorpion stings by the local Tuareg people. The gourd is also a purgative - that is cleanses and purifies the body. For further details, see "Traditional medicine in Central Sahara: Pharmacopoeia of Tassili N?ajjer", by Hammiche, H. & K. Maiza; Journal of Etnopharmacology, Volume 105 (2006) pp. 358-367

In prehistoric times the Sahara was significantly wetter, but climatic desiccation over the past few thousand years has destroyed much of its wildlife. The flora of the Sahara is estimated to include about 1,200 species, consisting mainly of xerophytes and ephemeral plants, with halophytes in moister areas, and Acacia, Tamarisk and Calotropis procera along the wadis. However, according to another scientific study, the Sahara's flora still includes about 3000 species.

The fauna of the Sahara includes about 70 species of mammals, 300 species of birds, including 90 species of resident birds, and around 100 species of reptiles. Owing to extreme heat, most small desert creatures are nocturnal. The populations of these species were greatly reduced by over-hunting and many are now endangered species, like the ostrich, addax, some species of gazelles and the cheetah. Most of the African large mammals that were reported to have been present in the desert until the second half of the 19th century have now become extinct. Some of these animals can be seen in Fezzan Park, and also in Tripoli's zoo.

The Sahara is also rich in oil and metallic mineral deposits, the most common of which is iron ore (found in large quantities in Algeria and Mauritania), followed by copper, manganese, phosphates, and uranium (with large deposits in Niger, which may explain the recent unrest that hit the country in the last decade or two).

Desert Roses:

Desert Roses from the Sahara around the Ghadames Area, Libya.

Desert roses grow in size just like plants and animals do. The leaf-like structure of its crystals makes the stone look like a rose flower and hence its name. This leafy structure is slowly built using the mineral gypsum which grows in the tiny gaps between the specks of sand. A handful of sand would appear compact to the naked eye, but under the microscope one can easily see more cavities than sand. As it grows in these cavities the gypsum seals the surrounding   sand particles in leaf-like flakes. These flakes then grow with time just like plant leaves do, and develop complex forms (see above).

This type of desert rose is found after Tmessah and before reaching Waw Alkabeer, Fezzan, southern Libya.

Life In The Desert

Most of the Sahara's oases are situated in depressions and sustained by underground basins and rivers.

But how do plants survive in the desert?

For plants to survive in the desert, they must invent ingenious ways to deal with lack of water. Some species germinate within 72 hours of rainfall and sow their seeds 2 weeks later. Shrubs and trees have extensive root systems which can penetrate as far as 50 metres into the ground; tamarisk and acacia have short, fat trunks that act as reservoirs for excess water. The seeds of ephemerals germinate only after heavy rain, and then very quickly consume their entire life-cycle; producing brightly coloured flowers to attract insects. Grasses, however, develop large and complex root systems for collecting water over a wide area, enabling them to survive when the over ground parts are scorched to death. Geophytes survive by remaining underground as bulbs, and like ephemerals, they quickly grow and develop when rain comes. Saharan succulents, like euphorbia, suck the extra water to store for later.   Some insects collect moisture from the air and then direct it as droplets of water into their mouths. While desert-ships (the camels) vary their bodies' temperature according to the conditions: low when it is cool and high when hot; when they are thirsty transpiration drops to zero.

While humans resort to nomadic way of life in order to survive in the Sahara, travelling from one location to another in search of water and vegetation. The only permanently inhabited zones in the Sahara are the oases and areas along the few fertile valleys, such as Wadi Alhayat (the Valley of Life) in Fezzan. The palm trees in these regions, which are normally arranged in narrow lines with an east-west orientation (in line with the apparent sun's course across the sky), occur where water is relatively close to the surface, and thus allowing the digging of shallow wells to support settled life.   Rain in the Sahara falls at rare intervals, mostly between the months of January and April, with a variation from 0.5 inch to 4 inches over a 5 year period.

Calotropis Procera (Asclepiadaceae)
Berber (Tuareg) name: Torha, Torcha or Torh N'ajjer; while in Libya it is called Branbakh or Albranbakh.

The wood is light, and used to light fire (by rubbing it against hard wood to generate heat and then sparks), and also used for roofing material for small huts.
According to Sahara-Nature (sahara-nature.com/plantes.php?aff=nom&plante=calotropis%20procera) one should not touch the plant, as the latex (the milky sap) produced is very irritant, especially to the eyes: can become blind.

Top of Page

Some of the main animals and insects that can be found in the Sahara include

• Baboons
• Barbary Sheep (Ammotragus Lervia)
• Scarab Beetles
• Wild Ass
• Ants
• Locusts
• Ostriches
• Oryxes
• Rock Hyrax (Procavia Capensis)
• Chameleons
• Dwarf Crocodiles (in Chad's portion of the Sahara)
• Spiders
• Snakes (serpents, pythons, cobras, horned viper, sand snakes, etc.)
• Scorpions
• Flying scorpions (rather gliding scorpions, as they glide along with the wind).
• Mosquitoes
• Mongoose
• Jackals
• Fennec Foxes (Vulpes zerda, Vulpes rueppellii, Vulpes pallida)
• Badgers
• Pigeons
• Brown-necked Ravens
• Mouse-like Jerboas
• Saharan Gundi Mouse
• Lizards
• Goats
• Oxen
• Hedgehogs
• Moths
• Flies
• Dragonflies
• Leaf bugs
• Frogs (Bufo Viridis, Ptychadina Occipitalis)
• Antelopes (Leucoryx)
• Camels
• Hyenas
• Cats (Felis Caracal, Felis Chaus, Sand Cat)
• Gazelles
• Waddan (large goatlike deer)
• Weasel
• Gerbils
• Jerboas
• Bears (in Al-Hamada Al-Hamra around March and April)

Fish (in pools):

• Brine Shrimp
• Clarias Anguillaris
• Barbus Biscarensis
• Tilapia Zillii

Birds (Migratory & Breeding):

• Vultures
• Crows
• Hawks
• Moula Moula bird ('the messenger')
• Alectoris Barbara Duprezii
• Golden Eagle
• Long-legged Buzzard (Buteo Rufinus)
• Brown Desert Larks
• White Stork (Ciconia)
• Moorhen Gallinula Chloropus
• Desert Sparrow
• Botaurus Stellaris
• Lesser Kestrel (Falco Naumanni)
• Stone Curlew (Burhinus Oedicnemus)
• Lxobrychus Minutus
• Short-toed Eagle (Circaetus Gallicus)
• Night Heron (Nycticorax)
• Desert Eagle Owls
• Rock Martins
• Coot Fulica Atra
• Squacco Heron (Ardeola Ralloides)
• Purple Heron (A. Purpurea)
• Glossy Ibis (Plegadis Falcinellis)

A family of Camels, Hamada Hamra, Libya.

Desert Camels:

Camels are nearly 50 million years old; and, like horses, were as big as domesticated cats, living in North America's forests. By 12 million years ago, several types of camels evolved, including the one-meter-tall Procamelus of the Camelus genus, from which modern camels descended. The Camelus crossed North America to Asia, some 3 million years ago, and then reached Africa rather recently (between 4 and 3 thousand years ago). 90 %  of camels are dromedaries (with one hump), most of which live in North/East Africa. On average camels can travel the hot Sahara for two weeks without drinking water, slowly loosing weight; and when water is found, their large stomachs can carry as much as 100 litres of water. Camels do not carry water in their humps, which are mainly fat.

The ship of the desert: the camel.

 Libyan Serpents:

There are about 95 species of reptiles in the Sahara, consisting mainly of three types: lizards, snakes and tortoises. Although most of them are small creatures, the desert monitor lizard can reach up to 1.5 meters long. Unlike other vertebrates reptiles are cold-blooded and therefore are unable to produce their own heat. They live on insects and small mammals, and their thick skin helps them minimises water loss.

There are about 400 species of snakes in Africa today, 90 of which are venomous. According to classical Greek sources the Sahara was infested with serpents, mythical and real, like those of the Libyan Gorgon Medusa. Libyan traditions state that snakes are harmless if they are left alone. For some reason, probably to do with the low temperature, snakes are completely timid and harmless between the months of October and February. The photo on the right shows a sand viper (about fifty centimetres long), which has a pair of horns just above the eyes. The trouble with the sand viper is that it is usually buried just under the surface of the sand; which means good desert boots are essential. The ancient Garamantes of Fezzan carried Neith's tattoos on their legs, just above the ankle, properly to protect from snake bites, which are a bit painful, but rarely fatal.

However, be reminded that when travelling in the desert it is best to always wear thick leather boots. and avoid disturbing stones and small rocks (snakes like it hot), especially in sunny places, and if you have to, like when camping, then be aware of scorpions and serpents.

Camping preparations should always take place in full day light and never at night. If you see snakes sneaking about, then learn to leave them alone and keep a safe distance from them, and remember to never corner a snake or a cobra as they might attack before you get a chance to react.

If you have been bitten and cannot get medical care within half an hour, then the Red Cross recommends the traditional technique of washing the affected area with soap and water and then applying a bandage, about three inches above the wound, but not very tight as to stop the flow of vital blood. Also try and keep the affected area below the heart level to slow down the flow of venom. Traditionally one would make a small cut and squeeze as much blood out of the wound as possible, but academic experts advise against making any cuts to prevent the risk of infection. Instead they recommend a suction device which can be used to draw the venom without making a cut. We have included these kits among the things you should take with you to Libya in our travel guide to Libya.

Antivenin: for serious snake bites, physicians apply antivenin, which is an antidote derived from antibodies made in a horse's blood serum after injecting it with the poison.

Snake Bite Kit:

If you type "snake bite kit" in a search engine, you will be presented with a list of suppliers to check. These kits are very cheap to buy, usually between £3 and £5. The kit contains small and high-suction cups, lymph constrictor, scalpel, antiseptic swab and complete instructions. We recommend you take one with you.

What not to do:

Do not place any cooling element, such as ice, on the bite, as this would make it much harder to remove the venom with the suction device.
Do not make a cut on or around the bite, as you would be taking the risk of infection.
Do not suck blood with your mouth, as you would be taking the risk of taking the venom into your bloodstream.

Pythons:

Although venomous snakes kill by injecting poison, pythons kill their prey by constriction: they coil their bodies around their prey, slowly suffocating  them to death. At up to twenty five feet long (the reticulated python: Python reticulatus), you are not left with much choice but to avoid them in the first place. Always keep a safe distance, as they can leash out to half their bodies' length in an instant. However, the African Ball python (Python regius) rarely gets bigger than six feet long, and is very well tamed and very popular pet.

Monitor Lizard:

An engraving of a prehistoric Saharan lizard from Wadi Matkhandoush, Fezzan, Libya; probably a Monitor Lizard. The image could also represent a crocodile, although the legs are far to long and high for a crocodile.

The Monitor Lizard, which can reach up to 1.5 meters long, is one of the various species of varanus. The generic name varanus originally comes from the North African Berber lawren or lawran (see photo below), which appears to be an ancient root found in various languages, including Semitic, as in Arabic waral (lizard), and Indo-European, as in Latin varanus and German warane (monitor lizard). The name monitor comes from the belief that the lizards stand on their two hind legs and thus appear to "monitor" their surroundings, just as meerkats do, and therefore Latin "monere" means and is linked to English warn: to give warning of approaching danger.

A well preserved varanus lizard, on display in an exhibition of traditional crafts in Nalut, Nafousa Mountain, Libya. The label is a Berber word saying lawran , written in the Arabic script.

Gazelle Species:

• Scimitar-Horned Oryx (now extinct in the wild)
• Dorcas Gazelle (Gazella dorcas)
• Dama Gazelle (Gazella dama)
• Red-Fronted Gazelle

Sahara Foxes:

• Fennec (Vulpes zerda): small, clever fox,  with large ears, capable of tracking down lizards and beetles at night from their slightest sounds.
• Ruppell's (Vulpes rueppellii)
• Pale fox  (Vulpes pallida).

Desert Crocodiles:

Crocodiles were the masters of the Sahara some 100 million years ago, and were very common to the Sahara, especially in large lakes and rivers, until a century ago. Today, some survived in small numbers, particularly in the Ennedi mountains of Chad and the Tagant in Mauritania.

Sahara Scorpions:

Insects are very numerous in the Sahara, especially  scorpions, termites, ants, sacred scarab beetles, spiders, and the most devastating of  all the locusts, which can cover massive areas very quickly and consume entire fields in a matter of minutes. Most desert insects are nocturnal and the secret of their survival is their hard, crusty and waxy skin which minimises water loss, in addition to hiding under rocks (like scorpions) and under the sand (like centipedes).

The common scorpion in the Sahara is the Leiurus quinquestriatus (the deathstalker), which although it can kill a child, an elderly or a weak person, it rarely kills a healthy adult. The poison is administered via the tail sting, which if cut away the scorpion becomes edible. Scorpions get their fluids from their prey and thus they rarely drink. If scorpions are left alone and not disturbed, they, like serpents, are harmless and rarely attack humans for no reason. Stepping over them accidentally, however, forces them to spontaneously react, thinking they were attacked.

If you have been stung by a scorpion, then do not panic and get help as soon as you can. Meanwhile, you can tie your belt or any string above the affected area, if possible, to stop the spread of poison, and try and let out some blood by making a small cut. If you come across the wild gourds pictured above, then it might be handy to keep one in your bag, as they are traditionally used by the Tuareg to treat scorpion stings. There are those who say one should not attempt the traditional remedy and should get help instead. But then how one can get help in the desert? Traditional Environmental Knowledge, known as TEK to scientists, is currently being collected from around the world as human heritage, and most of it, if not all, is rather impressive.

Scorpion Sting Kits:

Anti venom kits are usually used to extract the painful venom left by common insects, such as wasps, bees, midges, mosquitoes, spiders and even the extremely painful jellyfish. A typical kit   normally contains a mini vacuum pump, which painlessly extracts poison from stings and thereby reducing itching. However, these kits are also used to treat snake bites and scorpion stings, as they allow you, using only one hand if need to,  to take as much poison out of the system as possible, especially when used immediately after applying the bandage above the wound (to slow down the spread of venom, as described above).

Once the majority of the poison has been removed, use painkillers   (if any) to relief the pain. If you have noticed any symptoms of muscular spasm or respiratory difficulties, then medical help is paramount. To help the medical staff with applying the correct antidote, the scorpion should be kept in a special container (a glass jar) for identification. If you are a healthy adult, then there is nothing to worry about. I have been stung twice in one night and sought no help whatsoever.

Prevention Better Than Cure:

• Never set camp at night when you cannot see what you are doing. Setting up camping site must be done in broad day light.
• Never disturb stone, small or large; just leave them as they are. The worst thing to do is send a signal to the scorpion that its home has been destroyed.
• Always shake out your boots in the morning, although there are those who prefer to sleep with their boots on, and then take them off during the day while driving in the car.
• Always shake off garments and loose items and check all containers in the morning.
• Always carry a sting kit.

These are not flying scorpions as such, but they call them "Wind Scorpions" because they utilise the wind to glide, just as many forest creatures do to jump from one tree to another; and therefore one can call them "gliding scorpions". These are mainly found in Edhan Murzuq and Al-Kufrah during the months of April and May, especially when it is very hot. {You better get your spacesuit ready for the Sahara.}

Scarab Beetle:

Beetles are very common in North Africa and there are several species of them, ranging from the classical and mythical scarab beetle to the flying and extremely noisy beetles. It was thought the ancient Egyptians' fascination with the scarab beetle stemmed from the spontaneous birth of newborn beetles from beetle dung balls, which females spend their days harvesting from animals' waste.   These balls certainly would have appeared mysterious and magical because the ancient Saharans were unaware that they housed deposits of beetle eggs, and thus their association with rebirth and resurrection was not paranormal as much as it was normal.

Mosquitoes:

The Italians were among the first researchers to study mosquitoes in the Libyan Sahara. They have collected a large number of samples from various areas and conducted extensive studies.

Sub-genus Myzomyia:

• Anopheles multicolor Camb .:
  The most widely distributed anopheline in Fezzan. Lo Monaco Croce (1931) recorded this species from Murzuq, Gatroun and Tmassah.
• Anopheles sergenti Theob.:
  Chidini (1934) reported this species from Adiri   and Tmassah. Also reported from el-Jidid near Sebha.
• Anopheles broussesi Edw.:
  Vermeil (1953) reported it from an area near el-Barkat, near Ghat, west of the southern part of Jabel Acacus
• Anopheles hispaniola Theob.:
  Foley (1939) reported it from Ghudwah, south of Sebha.
• Anopheles superpictus Grassi:
  Ghidini (1934) reported it from Gatroun and Tajerhi

• Sub-genus Allotheobaldia
  Theobaldia longiareolata Macq.:
  Vermeil (1953) reported it from Adiri, Brak and Sebha
• Sub-genus Ochlerotatus:
  Aedes caspiuss Pallas:
  Vermeil (1953) reported it from Murzuq, Brak, Ghudwah.
• Aedes mariae Sergent:
  Ghidini reported it from Adiri, Murzuq and Gatroun
• Sub-genus Barraudius:
  Culex pusillus Macq.:
  Vermeil (1953) reported it from Greifa (Wadi Alajal). It was also found near Tripoli.
• Sub-genus Culex:
  Culex univittatus Theob.:
  Vermeil (1953) reported it from Adiri, Brak, Sebha and Serdeles (Awaynat).
• Sub-genus Culex:
  Cluex pipiens L.:
  Zavattari reported it from Gatroun; and Vermeil (1953) from Brak and Sabha

Top of Page

Some of the main plants that can be found in the Sahara desert

acacia

• Date Palms
• Thorny Palms
• Thorny acacias
• Scrubby bushes
• Euphorbia
• Olive-hued shrubs
• Orange trees
• Oleander
• Fig trees
• Oleander trees
• Tamarind
• Alfalfa grass
• Esparto grass
• Oat grass
• Tamarisk
• Anrthirrnum ramosissimuma
• Ononis angustissima
• Cypress
• Artemisia
• Thyme
• Eragrostis
• Panicum
• Aristida
• Wild gourds.
• Olive trees (olives and olive oil promote healthy living and skin, long life, and vitality).
• Magaria (a tree bearing a fruit the size of a cherry and of light brown colour. When dry it is pounded and formed into little cakes).
• Tribulus (blooms after desert rainfall).
• Calotropis (the milky sap released when the stem is broken is poisonous and should be avoided).
• Cornulaca monacantha (blooms after desert rainfall, liked by camels).

Please click here for a comprehensive Latin-Tuareg list of plants in the Sahara.

Palm Dates, Sahara, Libya.

Fossilised Wildlife In The Sahara Desert:

The Sahara desert is very rich in fossils of extinct wildlife. Some of the fossils found include those of dinosaurs, petrified tree trunks, lizards and marine shells. The following photos show some of the fossils currently on display in Ghadames Museum.

Petrified forest remains from the area between Ubari and Awaynat, Fezzan, Southern Libya. The forest can be reached via the road from Sabha to Awaynat. GPS location: N25-57.750 E11-24.616.

Libya Before The Sahara:

Libya Before The Sahara, by Professor Noel T. Boaz, of Benghazi's Libyan International Medical University, published by the International Institute for human Evolutionary Research Integrative Centres for Science and Medicine, 2009. The following cover photograph is of As-Sahabi Locality P28 and the Petrified Forest fronting Garet Makada ("Elephant Hill"), west of Sebkhat al-Qunnayyin, Libya. The site of As-Sahabi, in North Central Libya, is one of the greatest fossil sites in Africa; apparently so because a great river once flowed through this region. The Eo-Sahabi River was rich in marine wildlife including large widehead catfish, bichirs, spotted sqeaker, Nile perch, sea turtles, sea cows, long-snouted crocodilian, iniid river dolphins, bream and white sharks, and was surrounded by lush-green trees and many wild animals, chattering birds, bears, hyenas, pigs, monkeys, antelopes, three-toed horses, four-tusked elephants, six-fore-toothed hippos and many more exotic species; all of which have since dissapeared into the corridors of history, leaving behind a sea of fossils. According to Professor Boaz: "The site of As-Sahabi first became known not as a window to the past, but for window panes."

Top of Page

Visit our Sahara page for unique desert shots.

Top of Page