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Brief History & Prehistory of Libya
Introduction
to the History of Libya
The ancient history of Libya, the "undiscovered country”,
is mainly known to us through a few scattered ancient Egyptian
references and loose Greek and Roman descriptions, such as those
of Herodotus, Diodorus and Sallust, who impolitely, in his Jugurthine
War, said that: "Africa was in the beginning peopled
by the Gaetulians and Libyans, rude and uncivilized tribes, who
subsisted on the flesh of wild animals, or on the herbage of the
soil like cattle. They were controlled by neither customs, laws,
nor the authority of any ruler; they roamed about, without fixed
habitations, and slept in those shelters to which night drove them."
The
more recent hypo-theses regarding the history and the origin of
the Libyans, the Berbers, are no better than Sallust's hallucinations.
Some say the ancient Libyans came from Asia, supremacists say
they arrived from North Europe, Aryans purport they were
Greek colonists, while we must not forget those who say
they came from Libyan Poseidon's Atlantis, which Plato located
near the Atlas Mountains in North Africa. Coming from 'Orion' or 'Sirius' throws
the whole subject off by denying the Berbers any association with the 'earth'.
Full scientific and archaeological survey
of Libya will take decades, if not centuries, to materialise, and
until then, it is difficult to conclude a fair history
of Libya.
Therefore proper history of Libya remains
to be written, and must include the recent genetic evidence regarding the origin
of the ancient Libyans. Recent genetic results prove the continuous
existence of the Berbers (or their ancestors) in North Africa for the last 50,000
years; while archaeology had already extended this continuous existence to 100,000
years (see McBurney).
Libya’s rich archaeological remains were first noticed during
the Italian occupation, where preliminary excavations produced some
outstanding results. But although the Second World War quickly
brought an end to this period of excavation, steps were taken afterwards
by the British administration and the Libyan government
to build an Antiquities Department. The most ancient of these
archaeological remains, namely stone-age implements like
flints, axes and stone mortars, still lay scattered, in millions, across
the surface of the desert, looted by some tourists, tomb robbers and antiquity
dealers, and re-buried by sand for future generations to rediscover. Other
more interesting sources of Libyan history come from the largest library of rock
drawings, inscriptions and engravings in the world: the Sahara desert, which
are yet to be catalogued and studied.
The Berbers are often
excluded from Libya's history, except perhaps when they come in
conflict with the various conquests their countries came to consume. Even
the late Ancient Egyptians made a habit of mentioning Libyans or Berbers more
to do with wars than with any other aspect of their
culture; in the same way most of the information circulating the internet today
about Libya's Berbers are there because of the February War.
Libya and the whole of North African littoral was originally
inhabited by an indigenous group of ancient Berber tribes, whose linguistic
unity proves that an ethnic sub-stratum of "autochthons" single
race existed in North Africa, from the Mediterranean to the Sudan
and from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, covering
Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Canary Islands, Mauritania,
Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso and Chad. This linguistic
unity is part of a larger union which includes ancient Egyptian,
Chadic, Ethiopian, Semitic and Omotic languages of East Africa,
in what is originally known as Hamito-Semitic and now renamed Afro-Asiatic
or Afrasiatic. The lost
empire.
55,000,000 to 35,000,000 Years Ago:
The 55 million years old fossil of a primate found in
Morocco, and the 35 million years old Aegyptopithecus found
in Fayyum, in Egypt, are considered the oldest
primate remains ever found in Africa. The earliest known
hominoid (man-like) fossil, dubbed Oligopitchecus
Savagei and which
was also found in Fayyum, is 33 million years old. About seven
million years ago, proto-humans diverged into a separate evolutionary
tree, and soon afterwards, about five million years ago, Africa itself began
to crack along its eastern section, leading to the formation of the Red Sea and
the emergence of the great Rift Valleys: one running from Abyssinia to Lake Victoria,
and the other from Victoria to the Zambesi. It was suggested that the
subsidence is continuously creating new lakes, which by trapping
more sediments preserve more fossils and hence the abundance of
fossil records in East Africa.
4,000,000 To 3,000,000 Years Ago:
About 3.7 million years ago, the Australopithecus have
evolved to become the first ancestor who marked the beginning of
human culture, symbolised by tool making, the use of fire, and
organised settlements into perhaps what we now know as "society". The
discoveries at Ain Hanech in North Africa, when most
archaeologists believed no human artifacts older than the Pleistocene
(3.5 to 1.3 million years ago) can be found, confirmed that tool-making
humans had lived in North Africa in the Pliocene. They made hand-axes,
and polygonal nodules and cores of limestone with many flakes removed.
Stone tools connected with the east African Olduvai
Gorge, from
Tanzania, were said to be the same as those found in Ain Hanech, suggesting an East African origin of the settlers.
2,000,000 To 1,000,000 Years Ago:
Until now, Africa was considered the only continent our early
ancestors inhabited. Around 2 million years ago, they were advanced
enough to initiate the greatest journey of all times: the exploration
of planet earth. The Homo Erectus left Africa to
colonise Asia and Europe. Their bones were found in North Africa,
as far west as Casablanca, Rabat and Ternifine,
and in Asia, as far as China. Since their earliest remains in Europe
and Asia date back to about 700,000 years ago, anthropologists
have concluded that their journey must took them more than half
a million years. Those ancestors who remained in Africa evolved
into our own species, the Homo Sapiens, who also
went on to colonise Asia and Europe.
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1,000,000 To 100,000 Years Ago:
Around 800,000 years ago, the Sahara was hot, tropical, very
damp and covered with swamps, lakes and rivers. There were herds of
elephants and antelopes, hippopotami in the lakes, crocodiles in
the rivers, and vegetation everywhere. This period of heavy rain
lasted for hundreds of thousands of years. Then around 450,000
years ago, the earliest type of pebble-tool in Tokra (Cyrenaica)
and Bir
Dufan (Tripolitania) was replaced by the hand-axe.
About 200,000 years ago, the Neanderthals evolved, and were still
in existence when modern humans emerged about 50,000 years ago.
It was initially said that the two species did not co-exist and
thus the Neanderthals went extinct about 29,000 years ago. But, as always
is the case with premature research, scientists now say they never went extinct,
but mingled and intermarried with the new comers, just as humans still do. About
125,000 years ago the hand-axe was replaced by the Levallois or Prepared-Core technique.
Evidence from this period indicates humans were well familiar with fishing techniques,
and painted their faces with red ochre.
100,000 Years Ago:
The most important Neanderthal site from Libya is the
Cave of Haua Fteah', near Marsa Sousa, in eastern
Libya; other North African sites include Jebel
Irhoud, Temara and Tangier. The Neanderthals were fairly short and had long
skulls, protruding at the back, and heavier brows and jaws. They
were the first humans to design clothes out of animal skin and
the first in line to bury their dead. The Haua Fteah' in
eastern Libya is one of the largest prehistoric cave-sites in the
world and certainly the largest in the Mediterranean basin. A super-massive
structure, providing continuous archaeological record from 100,000
years ago to the present. According to C.B.M
McBurney (Libya in History, p. 7), "During
the Last Interglacial period
some 90,000 years ago Cyrenaica was occupied by an exceptionally
inventive and advanced group of Paleolithic hunters, among the
most technologically progressive communities so far known to have
existed at the time.” These ancient Libyan hunters lived on
wild cattle, gazelle, snails and marine molluscs, and made tools
far in advance of anything known at the time, including a bone
flute. This hardly known discovery, which McBurney brought to the
attention of the international community way back in the 1950s,
remains one of the best evidences that humans have
existed continuously in one site in Libya for 100,000 years.
50,000 BC to 30,000 BC:
About 37,000 years ago, Libya, and much of North Africa,
was occupied by tall, large-brained, and powerfully built humans, known as
the Cro-Magnon. The remains of this type were found to be
older than other Cro-Magnon samples from other sites (Europe
and Middle East), and it was widely believed that they were the
direct ancestors of the Berbers and the Iberians.
Cultural evidence from Fezzan, the home of the classical Garamantes
Kingdom,
then the most advanced people in the Sahara, goes back to more
than 30,000 years. Stone implements dated to the late Acheulean
and the Aterian (named after Bir el-Ater) cultures (100,000
- 30,000 BC) were found in numerous sites from the Fezzan area,
and, according to most sources, many more await discovery. The
dating of Fezzan's rock drawings to 12000 BC is widely disputed
and many scholars call for pushing this date farther back in
time on the light of the recent discoveries, and also strongly
criticised the old techniques originally used to date the work
some 40 or 50 years ago.
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20,000 BC to 5,000 BC:
Hundreds of millions of years ago the Sahara desert was covered
by great seas. As the seas drifted away, land slowly gave way
to a great desert, much larger than the one we have now.
Since then, the Sahara comes and goes just as the ice ages do elsewhere.
During Europe's merciless Ice Ages, the Sahara was a warm shelter
for many European refugees, who fled their homes for the luxurious
and exotic paradise of North Africa. One
of these most recent cycles brought heavy rainfalls to the area, and slowly turned
the Sahara to wet green land, covered with lakes and rivers, most suitable for
water-thirsty animals like hippopotami, rhinoceroses, crocodiles and elephants.
This lost paradise was the home of several extinct civilisations, traces of which
still are preserved across the Sahara’s galleries, and which now
are the focus of many scientific institutions from around the world, in search
of human’s primeval past!
The cultures
were so advanced of anything known elsewhere, and had advanced
and dramatic anthropomorphic symbolism. Around
20,000 years ago humans began migrating out of the area and, according to the
latest genetic evidence, headed for Iberia, Egypt, and the Middle East, where
they spread the new culture all around the Mediterranean sea. Recent archaeological
research has confirmed that the so called Ibero-maurusian culture (22,000
BC), was in fact purely Berber culture, and
that the name Ibero- was added by Aryanists for political reasons, probably instigated
to assist colonialism and achieve global supremacy (which they now have).
The skeletal remains of a population anthropologists named
"Mouillans"
were said to date between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. These settlements
were typically small, of about 100 individuals, mostly of women
and children! They posed the largest cranial capacity of any
population the world has ever seen; indicating, perhaps, their
relation to the earlier, large-brained Cro-Magnons. Dr Carleton
Coon has pointed out that the Mouillan features have never before
evolved in such combinations in any race at that time in human's
history.
The Berber Garamantian Period:
("Some years ago Diole
wrote: "The name of the Garamantes . . . does little
more, really, than designate our ignorance." C. Daniels.)
The cave drawings and engravings found in Fezzan (Fazzan)
were said to be at least 12,000 years old; although, according to
other sources the dating process needs to
be revised. The breathtaking treasures of the Sahara's prehistoric
drawings and engravings are perhaps the best measure of the
level of civilisation attained by these peoples.
Sadly, this world heritage material is largely neglected
and still remains to this day scattered across
the Sahara desert as if it were historical garbage, and even intentionally desecrated
and looted. Today, mainly
the Tuareg confederacies remain the keepers of the great Sahara Desert. Wars
and famines in Africa still play their role in population flow; if not natures
way to fuel the engine of evolution. This ancient civilisation did not suddenly
appear from no where. Its distribution across a massive expanse of land, the
largest desert in the world, and spanning nearly 13 countries, indicates a continuation
of earlier continuations. The archaeological artifacts and stone tools discovered
in various sites from Fezzan were dated to the late Acheulean and the Aterian
cultures (circa 100,000 - 30,000 BC.). This area was also the home of the
Berber Garamantes Kingdom, considered to be Libya's first
indigenous empire. They initially run their kingdom from
the nearby capital Zinchecra (on
the hills of Messak Settafet),
then from Germa or Garama (today's
Jerma or Germa) in the first century AD, so named after their
eponymous ancestor Garamas ("the
first of men"),
who was, according to mythology, the son of the glorious
Sun, who offered
Mother Earth a sacrifice of the sweet acorn. The Garamantes
were placed by Pliny twelve days journey from the Augilae, and ten days
by Herodotus, in
the interior of Libya. They occupied the most habitable region of the Sahara:
the Wadis el-Agial and Sciati and the oases from Murzuk to Zuila.
Herodotus informs us that the Garamantes were spread soil over salt to
sow their seeds in, and hunt in four-horse chariots; while archaeological
discoveries indicate the Garamentian cities were thriving
urban centres, with markets and public entertainment forums. From
the archaeological remains of Germa, the city appears to have
had six towers and a square market, used as a transit point for
caravans and for the horses the Garamentes then exported to Rome.
Some of Germa's archaeological finds can be found in Germa
Museum.
For more about Germa, please see http://www.temehu.com/Cities_sites/germa.htm
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The Berber Libyan Amazons:
According to several historical records, the Libyan birthplace
of the Goddess Neith, whom the Greeks adopted as
Athena, as has been pointed out by Plutarch, Diodorus
and Herodotus, was also the traditional homeland of the warrior women known
as the Libyan Amazons, in the western parts of Libya, particularly around the
legendary Lake Tritonis. The world of the Amazons was ruled by women warrior,
in which they followed a manner of life unlike that which prevailed among other
races of the time. The Libyan Gorgon Medusa, who often led the Libyans
of Lake Tritonis in battle, against Her enemies, was said to
have once been a beautiful maiden until Poseidon lay with her
and incurred the enmity of the goddess Athena, who turned
Medusa's lovely hair into deadly serpents and made her face so
hideous that a glimpse of it would instantly turn man to stone. Jealous Athena
helped Perseus, who was coming from Argos with an army, to behead Medusa,
and the drops of blood that fell from Medusa's severed head into
the Libyan desert were transformed into snakes; and probably hence
the abundance of serpents in the Sahara!! According
to Robert Graves, Diodorus Siculus' legend regarding the Libyan Atlantians,
from whom Libyan Amazons seized their city Cerne, cannot
be archeologically dated, but he makes it precede a Libyan invasion
of the Aegean Islands and Thrace. There is no doubt that the Athena of Herodotus,
whom the Amazon worshipped around Lake Tritonis, was none other than the Libyan
Goddess Tannit. Poets and scholars of all ages knew Her as the
Goddess Neith, whom the ancient Egyptians adopted as
Nit long before the Phoenicians returned to venerate as Tanit.
The Libyan Goddess Tannit (Neith)
at Assaraya
Alhamra Museum, Tripoli, Libya.
The following Arabic text, also displayed under the stone,
describes the above symbol of Tannit .
Temehu.com's translation of the Arabic text at the
Museum:
"The Goddess Tannit. Tannit is regarded as one of
the most famous and important Punic goddesses in
Tripolitania. She is the wife of the Punic god Bal Hamon. She was the
goddess of sowing, harvest and fertility, and a sky goddess essentially
associated with the moon. Her symbol, known as the symbol of Tannit, is
a triangle representing the human body, surmounted by a circle representing
the head, and separated by a horizontal line which represents the hands.
The worship of the goddess Tannit emerged after the 5th century BC. She
appears to be of Libyan origin. This piece is from the 2nd century BC.
"
[End of translation.]
The Berbers of The Ancient Egyptian Period: 3300 BC to 750 BC:
Egyptian records inform us that many parts of Libya and Egypt
itself were inhabited by various Libyan
tribes, the most prominent of which were the Temehu,
the Tehenu, the Ribu, and the Meshwesh.
From the extent of the Temehu's territories, it is evident that
they were made of a number of tribes, occupying much of the Sudan
and possibly all the way to Fezzan. Several historians have pointed
out that the Temehu and the Tehenu were the ancestors of the
present day Tuareg. When Greek and Roman historians arrived in
Libya and Egypt, the name Ribu became Libu, whence
present day “Libya”, and the name Meshwesh became Masuch (Herodotus), Maschouacha (Chabas), Maksiz (Ptolemy)
and Mazic (Latin
inscriptions), whence present day Tamazight,
and thus Imazighen -- the generic name
used to describe the indigenous inhabitants of North Africa as
a whole. The ancient Egyptians and the Berbers are strongly related
tribes and share one common origin. Both languages: Ancient Egyptian
(not to be confused with current Arabic Egyptian)
and Berber ('Tamazight') are sister languages belonging to the
same linguistic branch of the Afro-Asiatic linguistic family.
The cultural traits of the ancient Egyptians and the Libyan Berbers
and their mythologies and religions are also closely related,
if not the same. Inscriptions from
the Old Kingdom are perhaps the earliest recorded
information we have about the Berbers of Libya (excluding the
recorded pre-history of rock art). Before
King Menes forcibly unified Egypt and invaded Lower Egypt, the
Delta was primarily inhabited by Libyan Berbers who worshipped
the Goddess Tannit, the Cat-goddess Bast and the Sun-god
Amon. The Palermo
stone further illustrates the antiquity
of Libyans in Lower Egypt by listing a succession of Libyan pre-Dynastic
kings and queens from Lower Egypt. The Libyans however regained
control over Egypt about (ca. 945 BC), by establishing the Libyan Dynasties
on the hands of the Libyan King Shishenq or Shishonk.
The Arrival of the Phoenicians: 1000 BC To 200 BC:
The Phoenicians
originally descended from North Africa as attested by linguistic
evidence, where Proto-Semitic itself diverged from Proto-Berbero-Libyan
(Diakonoff, 1975, 1981) about 7000 years ago. According to the
legend of Dido,
which some sources say was a Roman invention to discredit Carthage:
its main rival, the Berber king Iarbas granted Dido as
much land as could be covered by an ox-hide; on which they settled
among the native Berbers and quickly adopted Berber gods and
traditions, like the Libyan Goddess Tannit whom they loved as
Tanit, and the Libyan Amon whom they worshipped as Bal-Amon,
in the same way the Greeks, later on, made him Zeus-Amon. Unlike the later arrivals,
the Phoenicians signed treaties of
cooperation with the native Berbers; and when the Persians invaded
Egypt and sent their ambassadors
to Libya asking the Berbers to help the Persians take over Carthage,
the Libyans replied saying that they will not take up arms against
their brothers, and thus succeeded in saving Libya from yet another
foreign rule. The Phoenicians established several colonies in
Libya, the most famous of which were Leptis Magna, Oea (Tripoli),
Sabratha, and Carthage (Qert Hadasht 'The New Village'),
which was founded in 814 BC. By 517 BC, this
Berber-Phoenician empire was gaining influence all around the
Mediterranean; eventually bringing terror and fear to
the Romans' hearts. Seeing danger besieging Rome for nearly 12
years, the Romans diverted the war to Carthage, where the Carthaginian government
recalled Hannibal from Rome to defend the capital, only to loose control of
the whole campaign. With Hannibal and Carthage out of the way, Rome was
ready to spread terror and roam the Mediterranean
world.
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The Arrival of the Greeks:
The Greeks established 5 colonies in Cyrenaica, around the
seventh century BC, which became known as the Pentapolis:
the Five Cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, Ptolemais,
Taucheira and Berenice (Benghazi). The Pentapolis enjoyed a
significant degree of autonomy, and Greek influence was limited
to the coastal regions. The Berber areas, further south, remained
free from Greek rule. Apparently, the city of Cyrene was
founded upon the oracular advise of Apollo at Delphi, by the Greeks
of Thera (modern Santorini), and thus their arrival
was portrayed as a divine mission, rather than a military conquest,
to secure foreign property. The fertile Green Mountain (Jebel al-Akhdar) supplied
Greece with livestock, grain, wine and the unique Cyrenaican plant silphium.
The level of civilisation attained by Cyrene was so high that it quickly became
one of the most cultural, philosophical and academic cities in North
Africa and produced some of the finest scholars of the time.
The popular philosophy of Cyrene was that of moral cheerfulness
and happiness. Shortly after the death of Alexander the Great in
323 BC, only eight years after his armies arrived in Cyrenaica,
his empire was divided among his Macedonian generals and thus
Cyrene and Egypt went to Ptolemy. Just over two hundred years
later, the Greek influence began to dwindle and the last Greek
ruler, Ptolemy Apion, finally surrendered Cyrenaica to Rome.
The tribes mentioned by Herodotus as Atarantes and/or Atlantes, who inhabited
the regions of the Atlas Mountain (then Mauritania, whence Moors ‘Berbers’),
were associated with the inhabitants of the lost Atlantes, whose chief God was
the Libyan Sea-god Poseidon. By the time of al-Ya'qubi (9th century) and Ibn
Khaldun (14th century), the ancient tribes of the Greek era became (not
replaced by) the Hawwara, Botr, Baranes, Sanhaja,
Zanata and Aurigh as well as other descendants of Bernes and
Madghis of the later genealogists.
Hannibal
The Arrival of the Romans:
When the Roman arrived in North-West Africa, there were a
number of Berber Kingdoms in existence, the most influential
of which was Numidia or Numidae. According to Herodotus,
the Libyans comprised two major groups: the agricultural
population of the coastal regions, and the shepherds or the
Nomads, of which Numidae is the Latin form. The
Numidae of the Second Punic War were essentially the Berber tribes
of the Masaesyli and the Massyli, the subjects
of the Berber kings Syphax and Masinissa respectively.
The Numidian kingdom of Masinissa eventually included all of
Tripolitania. When Hannibal invaded Italy, in his daring adventure
across the Alps, shattering rocks and obstacle by heating them with fire and
pouring wine along their cracks, he reached Rome and successfully laid siege
to the capital city for nearly 12 years. During these years the Roman
emperor with his generals and slaves were held prisoners in their own beloved
Rome. Here, most historians
agree that Hannibal had committed his greatest mistake: not
attacking Rome whilst he laid siege. Apparently
historians also say that Hannibal's morality had prevented him from attacking
Roman women and children in their own homes, and instead he hopped the men will
come out and give him a decent fight. Instead of seemingly
fighting to death and loosing Rome, their treachery inspired them to plot behind
the city walls to divert the war to North Africa and take the fight back to Carthage.
When Carthage was attacked by the Romans, the Carthaginian government fell in
the trap and immediately recalled Hannibal from Rome. Hearing the order to return
to Carthage, Hannibal knew exactly what the Romans had in mind, but he decided
to fulfil his duty, against the advice of most of
his closest generals, and returned to defend his homeland. This is why Hannibal
has a unique position in history no other general can ever attain. Compare the
modern war generals of today where the slaughter and bombardment of women and
children are a regular occurrence justified as "collateral damage"
across the brave,
free world! According to several sources, the Romans learned
a lot from Carthage, and that without Hannibal's attacks on Rome there would
had been no Rome.
Hannibal ( (247-183 BC):
219 : Siege of Saguntum
218 : Capture of Saguntum ,Declaration of War.
218 : Hannibal sets out from New Carthage.
218 : Hannibal crosses the Alps, Battle of R. Ticinus.
218 : Battle of R. Trebia.
218 : Hannibal crosses the Apennines, Roman successes.
217 : Elections in Rome,Hannibal crosses R. Arno.
217 : Battle of Lake Trasimene.
217 : Hannibal's escape from Campania, Hannibal at Gereonium.
217: Minucius's successes against Hannibal.
216 : Elections in Rome, Hannibal at Capua.
216 : Carthage receives news of Canna.
216 : Hannibal repulsed at Nola, Siege of Casilinum.
216 :Roman army destroyed by Boii.
216 : Hasdrubal stopped from leaving Spain.
215 : Elections in Rome, Alliance between Carthage and Macedon.
215 : Capture of Carthaginian generals in Sardinia.
214 : Conspiracy in Syracuse, Marcellus in Sicily.
214 : Massacre at Henna.
213 : Roman overtures to king Syphax
212 : Hannibal enters Tarentum, Carthaginians take Thurii.
212 : Tiberius Gracchus eliminated.
212 : Plague at Syracuse, death of Archimedes.
212 : Death of the Scipios.
212 : Lucius Marcius rallies Roman remnant in Spain.
212 : Marcellus victorious at Agrigentum.
211 : Hannibal marches to relieve Capua, Battle of R. Volturnus.
211 : Hannibal's march on Rome, Battle of R. Anio.
211 : Hasdrubal's escape from Nero in Spain.
210 : Alliance between Rome, Aetolian League, and Pergamum.
210 : Fire in Rome, Hannibal destroys Herdonea.
210 : Envoys from Syphax in Rome, raid on African coast.
208 : Raid on African coast, Plilip V intervenes in Greece.
207 : Hasdrubal crosses the Alps, Hasdrubal besieges Placentia.
207 : Hannibal routed at Grurnentum.
207 : Hasdrubal's letter to his brother Hannibal intercepted.
207 : Death of Hasdrubal (Hannibal's brother).
207 : Successful raid on Utica.
206 : Livy's tribute to Hannibal, Masinissa joins the Romans.
206 : Scipio and Hasdrubal meet Syphax, Slaughter at Astapa .
206 : Meeting between Scipio and Masinissa, surrender of Gades.
205 : Elections in Rome, Fabius's attack on Scipio in Senate.
205 : Laelius raids African coast .
204 : General peace in Greece.
204 : Pact between Carthage and Syphax.
204 : Scipio crosses to Africa, Masinissa comes to join Scipio.
204 : Hannibal defeated near Croton.
203 : Burning of Carthaginian camp at Utica.
203 : Syphax defeated at Great Plains.
203 : Naval battle off Carthage, final defeat and capture of
Syphax.
203 : Masinissa enters Cirta and meets Sophonisba.
203 : Sophonisba's death.
203 : Carthaginian envoys ask for peace, Rome rejoices over African
victories.
203 : Mago and Hannibal recalled from Italy.
203 : Hannibal leaves Italy, Hannibal lands at Leptis.
202 : Hannibal marches to Zama, meeting with Scipio.
202 : Battle of Zama : Rome wins.
195 : Hannibal's reforms in Carthage, Hannibal's flight
to Antiochus
193 : Hannibal's agent Aristo in Carthage.
191 : Hannibal's advice to Antiochus.
189 : Battle of Magnesia, senate ratifies peace with Antiochus
.
187 : Prosecution of Scipio Africanus and his death.
183 : Death of Hannibal: after he was betrayed by king Prusias,
Hannibal took
poison rather than surrender.
After the Punic Wars
with Rome, Carthage was
finally reduced to rubble and razed to the ground in 146 BC.
Hannibal was unharmed and left for Syria. From Syria he went
to Bithynia, in Asia, where its king Prusias eventually betrayed him to the Romans.
Hearing the news of the Roman army in their way to arrest him, he, like Cleopatra,
took poison in 183. With Hannibal and Carthage out of the way, Rome was ready
to spread terror around the Mediterranean world and across Europe and the Middle
East. The result was total cultural devastation across Europe where linguists
had concluded that 90% of Europe's indigenous languages had gone extinct as a
direct result of the Roman invasions -- and hence the subsequent spread of Latin
across Europe. Many of the other languages around the Mediterranean and the Middle
East, including ancient Egyptian, had also disappeared except Africa's Berber
and Europe's Basque's Euskara -- both of which are among the oldest languages
in the world, and both of which are related.
Shortly after the Carthaginian-Roman battle at Zama,
the Berber kingdoms began to suffer the impact of the Roman invasions, and by
46 BC, Julius Caesar deposed the final Numidian king, Juba I; and thereafter
Tripolitania was incorporated into the province of Africa
Proconsularis, to begin the export of goods and slaves to
Rome. Once the coastal regions were under Roman control, the
Roman generals wanted to do what no invader of Libya had done before:
to conquer the Sahara. After their initial expeditions
into the Garamantian empire, the Romans in 20–19 BC, and
later on in 69–70 AD, signed a trade and military treaty with
the Garamantian chiefs and the two became trading partners, as
evidenced by the pottery
shreds and other artifacts unearthed in Fezzan. By the end of
the first century AD Rome had completed the pacification of Sirtica
(the region now know as the Gulf of Sert), and Cyrenaica was
handed over to them by the Greeks.
Back
to top
The Arrival of the Arabs:
In 642 AD, U'mr ibn
al-A's, under the command of the Caliph U'mr I, arrived in Cyrenaica,
where he established his base at Barqa, and then a few years
later he moved on towards Tripolitania, where he removed the
remaining Byzantine garrisons and took control of Tripoli. After
U'mr, the Caliph sent Uqba bin Nafi, who moved
towards Fezzan in 663 and took Germa, and then the Roman province
of Africa in 670 AD, where he established another military
base at Kairouan (al Qayrawan) in preparation to attack Byzantine
Carthage, which they
finally took in 693 AD. It was reported that the orders were
given to raze Carthage to the ground, after having been already ransacked by
the Romans. Similar orders were also given in relation to Sabratha, the capital
of the Berber Nafusa tribes of Nafusa Mountain. Shortly afterwards, the Muslims
arrived in Morocco, from where they invaded Spain, under the command of Tariq
Bin Zayyad. By the seventh century, a power struggle ensued between the supporters
of rival claimants to the caliphate,
thereby creating two sects: the Sunni and the Shia. About 200 years later, Shia
missionaries of the Ismaili sect succeeded in converting the Kutama of Kabylia
and set them against the Sunni Aghlabids, where they took Kairouan
in the following year, and soon afterwards the wars broke out
again between the Shia Fatimid of North Africa and the Sunni
of Baghdad; eventually leading the Fatimid caliph to
invite Bani Hilal and Bani Salim bedouin tribes
from the Arabian peninsula.
Timeline of Historical Events In Libya & North Africa
|
|
640 - 641 AD
|
The arrival of Islam in Libya: in 640 AD the Arab
general Amr ibn al-Ās took Egypt, followed by Barqah in 641 AD.
|
|
642 - 647 AD
|
Amr ibn al-Ās moved on towards Tripolitania, where he removed the
remaining Byzantine garrisons and took control of Tripoli in 647 AD. Sends
Uqba ibn Nafi (O'qba ibn Nafea') toward Zwilah.
|
| 663 AD |
Uqba ibn Nafi moves
towards Fezzan and takes Germa. |
|
670 AD
|
Foundation of Kairouan (Qairawan). Uqba ibn Nafi (Oqba
Ben Nafea') claims
the Roman province of Africa in 670 AD and establishes his military base at Qayrawan;
where he built the Great Mosque of Kairouan, the oldest mosque in Africa, widely
regarded as the fourth holiest place, after Mecca, Medina and Alqudus (Jerusalem).
|
|
683 AD
|
Berber king
Kusila kills Uqba ibn Nafi and rules the country from Kairouan as a
Christian. |
|
690 - 698 AD
|
Kahina Dihya fought her final wars: in 693 she defeated
Hassan Ben Nua'man, who then retreated to Tripoli, waited for reinforcements,
and a few years later re-grouped. As she had predicted she dies fighting in 698.
|
|
700-705
AD
|
Creation of the Province of Afriqya; the Maghreb (North Africa)
was incorporated into the Islamic empire.
|
|
706-710
AD
|
Islamic influence spreads
to various parts of North Africa, as far as the Sanhaja Berbers
south of Mauritania; forcing the Sanhaja to start their trans-Saharan journeys
from Wadi Draa to reach Senegal by means of camels, and thus were considered
to be the first to make full use of the "ship
of the desert".
|
|
711
AD
|
The Berber general
Tariq Ben Zeyyad (Tariq Ibn Ziyad) conquers the Kingdom of Spain
with a Berber army and advisors. Tariq's commander, Musa ibn Nusair, followed
with substantial reinforcements. |
|
732
AD
|
The Arabs' defeat at
Poitiers. |
|
739
AD
|
Berber rebellions
followed by Arab rebellions in Morocco. |
|
750
AD
|
Islamic Umayyads at
Damascus overthrown by Abbasids. |
|
755
AD
|
Arrival of Umayyad
A'bd al-Rahman in Spain; Umayyad dynasty founded in Andalus.
A'bbasids regain
control of Afriqya.
|
|
788 - 796 AD
|
Fes founded by
ldris; ldrisid dynasty established in Morocco. Death of
A'bd al-Rahman I; successor son Hisham 1 (Andalus). Death d
Hisham I; successor son Hakam I. Series of rebellions in cities
(Andalus).
|
|
800
AD
|
Ibrahim ibn
al-Aghlab founds Aghlabid dynasty in Afriqya. Besides the
Sanhaja's trans-Saharan trade routes, two more
routes emerged around this time: one from Algeria to middle Niger,
and the other from Tripolitania to Lake Chad.
|
|
800-900
AD
|
The Berbers of the
Sahara and Sanhaja and the Nilo-Saharans founded the of
Kingdom of Kanim (east of Lake Chad ), the Kingdom of Songhay
(central Niger), and the Kingdom of Mali.
|
|
813-20, 822 AD
|
Emigration of
fighters from Spanish Cordova to Fes in Morocco, Afriqiya
and Egypt. A series of rebellions in cities in Afriqya. Death
of Hakam I; successor son A'bd al-
Rahman II (Andalus). People emigrate from Kairouan to Fes.
|
|
827
AD
|
Invasion of Sicily
from Afriqya; continues for 100 years. |
|
852
AD
|
Death of
A'bd al-Rahman II; succeeded by his son Muhammad I. |
|
868 - 888 AD
|
Tulunid Period,
(Ibn Tulun ) in Egypt. Death of Muhammad I; successor
son al-Mundhir (Andalus). Death of al-Mundhir.
|
|
900
AD
|
The Muslims now have
independent hereditary rulers: Aghlabids in Tunisia, and Tulunids
in Egypt. The Idrisids of Morocco and the Umayyads of Spain
did not recognise the authority of Baghdad Caliphs.
|
|
900 - 912 AD
|
In 902 AD a Shia revolt broke out in eastern
Algeria. In 909 al-Mahdi founds Fatimid dynasty
of caliphs (Afriqya). By 912 the Mahdi (the head
of the Fatimid line) founded the city of Mahdiya
from which he ruled Tunisia and Algeria.
|
|
912
AD
|
Umayyads gradually recover power (Andalus).
|
| 927 AD |
War in northern Morocco between Umayyads and
Fatimid and their Berber allies (the war continued for more
than 70 years). |
| 928 AD |
Abd ar-Rahman III takes title of caliph
(Andalus). |
| 961 AD |
Death of Abd al-Rahman III; successor
son Hakam II (Andalus). |
|
969 AD
|
The Fatimid invaded Egypt and ruled Palestine and parts of
Arabia. They left Tripolitania, Tunisia and Algeria to the
Zirids (a Sanhaja Berber family who assisted the Fatimid). The
Fatimid organised the arrival of Benu Hilal and Benu Salim
Arab tribes from Arabia into Egypt and Libya.
|
|
972 AD
|
The Fatimid caliph moves to Cairo, leaving
Zirids in charge of Afriqya.
|
|
976
AD
|
Death of Hakani II; successor infant son
Hisham II.
|
|
980
AD
|
Morocco broke away
from the Fatimid's rule. |
|
1002
AD
|
Ibn Abi A'mir
AI-Mansur (Almanzor) becomes regent for the Umayyads war on
Christians of northern Spain. Al-Manzor died in 1002. |
|
1009
AD
|
Overthrow of Al-Manzor's son (Andalus).
|
|
1013 AD
|
Sack of Cordova.
|
|
1014
AD
|
The Zirids of Algeria broke away from the Fatimid
rule.
|
|
1017-18
AD
|
The Zanata Berbers took Tripoli, Arabs seized
Barqa, and the massacre of Ismaili officials.
|
|
1031
AD
|
End of Umayyad dynasty. Period of Little Kings,
rulers of city states led by Seville (Andalus).
|
|
1040 AD
|
lbn Yasin forms Almoravids (al-Murabit'un - the
men of the monastery) in the Sahara, and begins his holy
war (Morocco).
|
|
1048
AD
|
Zirid Mu'izz repudiates Fatimid (Afriqya).
|
|
1049
AD
|
Tripolitania and Tunisia broke away from the
Fatimid.
|
|
1050
AD
|
By now Almoravids had conquered the western
Sahara (Sanhaja Berbers), and seized Sijilmasa in 1054, and
Awdaghust in 1055.
|
|
1052
AD
|
Mu'izz defeated by the tribes of Banu
Hilal.
|
|
1057
AD
|
Death of Ibn Yasin; successor Abu Bakr
(Morocco). Mu'izz abandons Kairouan for Mahdia
(Afriqya).
|
|
1056 -1082
AD
|
Almoravid armies conquered Morocco and
western Algeria
|
|
1069
AD
|
Abu Bakr founds Marrakesh, installs Yusuf ibn
Tashfin (Morocco). Almoravids under Yusuf ibn Tashfin
conquer Morocco.
|
|
1070
AD
|
Afriqya divided into city states and
tribal territories (Afriqya).
|
|
1076 - 1083
AD
|
Almoravid conquered Songhay and Ghana.
|
|
1085
AD
|
Capture of Toledo
by Castile. Muslims appeal to Almoravid Yusuf ibn
Tashfin. |
|
1086 - 1090
AD
|
Yusuf ibn Tashfin
conquers Andalus and exiles Little Kings to Morocco. |
|
1094 - 1099
AD
|
El Cid takes
Valencia (Andalus). El Cid besieged in Valencia. Yusuf ibn
Tashfin takes the title (Commander of the Muslims); and
Andalus and Morocco became united.
|
|
1100
AD
|
Bani Hilal take
control of eastern Algeria and Tunisia, the Zirid princes still
holding out in Bougie and Mahdiya. On the other side, Banu
Salim are taking control of Libya (only Cyrenaica
and Tripoli).
|
|
1106
AD
|
Death of Yusuf ibn
Tashfin, successor son Ali (Morocco). |
|
1118 - 1120 AD
|
Ibn Tumart forms Almohads in High Atlas
(Morocco). Almohads is a political and religious
movement of the Zenata Berbers of the Atlas. Death of Ibn Tumart in 1130, succeeded by his
caliph Abd al-Mu'min.
|
|
1135 - 1143 AD
|
Djerba invaded and taken by Normans
of Sicily (Afriqya). Abd al-Mu'min begins his campaign against
Almoravids. Death of A'li ibn Yusuf ibn Tashfin, successor
son Tashfin.
|
|
1145 - 1147 AD
|
Almohads defeated Almoravids
and took Morocco and Spain; death of Tashfin ibn Ali ibn
Yusuf ibn Tashfin. Norman conquest of Tripoli. Almohads capture Seville; flight of
Almoravid lbn Ghaniya to Majorca; Andalus
substantially independent.
|
|
1147 - 1163 AD
|
Moroccan Marrakesh captured by Almohads. Almohad Abd
al-Mu'min annexes Central Maghreb. Almohads conquer
Afriqya, drive Normans from coastal cities in Afriqya.
Death of Abd al-Mu'min, successor son Abu Ya'qub
(Morocco).
|
|
1171
AD
|
Kurdish Saladin (Salah'-Addin )
transformed Egypt into a military power and used it to wage his
wars against the Crusaders to recapture Palastine after he took over
from the last Fatimid ruler and founded the Ayyubid Dynasty in
Egypt.
|
|
1172 AD
|
Murcia taken by Almohad Abu Ya'qub. Andalus,
Morocco and Afriqiya united in Almohad Empire, capitals Seville
and Marrakesh.
|
|
1184
AD
|
Death of Almohad Abu Ya'qub, successor son
Abu Yusuf. Beginning of doctrinal war between Almohad
caliph and Almohad Shaykhs.
|
|
1195 - 1199 AD
|
Almohads defeat Castile at Alarcos. Invasion of
Afriqya by Almoravids from Majorca. Death of Almohad
Abu Yusuf, successor son al-Nasir.
|
|
1203 - 1207 AD
|
Almohads (Berbers of Zenata) conquer Majorca
from Almoravids. Defeat of Almoravids by Almohad al-Nasir. Abu
Muharnmad al-Hafsi made viceroy at Tunis.
|
|
1212 - 1213 AD
|
Defeat of Almohads
by Christians at Las Navas de Tolosa. Death of Almohad
al-Nasir, successor son al-Mustansir.
|
|
1127
AD
|
Murder of caliph
al-Adil; his brother al-Ma'mun repudiates Almohad doctrin.
Al-Ma'mun invades Morocco, massacres Almohad Shaykhs, and takes
power at Marrakesh. Break-up of Almohad empire: Andalus, Morocco
and Afriqya gave up their unity.
|
|
1230s
AD
|
lbn Hud takes
power in Andalus; Yaghmurasin takes power at Tlemcen; Abu
Zakariya al-Hafsi assumes leadership of Almohads, and founds
Hafsid dynasty at Tunis in 1236 AD. In Mali the prince Sundiata
re-established Mali's independence, and took Songhay,
Tadmekka, Walata and Ghana.
|
|
1239
AD
|
The foundation of
Ziyanid Dynasty in Algeria. In Morocco the Berber Marinids
replaced the Almohads. |
|
1248
AD
|
Ferdinand takes
Seville. |
|
1250-1517
AD
|
Marinid dynasty established at Fes.
|
|
1269
AD
|
Almohad were replaced by another Berber tribe
from the Zenata of Atlas - Ind Marin, who formed the Marinids
Dynasty in Morocco.
|
|
1270
AD
|
Turkish Mamluk in Egypt.
|
|
1275
AD
|
St Louis, King of France, attacks Tunis.
|
|
1276
AD
|
Marinid Abu Yusuf (Zeneta Berber) invades
Spain.
|
|
1299
AD
|
New Fes begun in Morocco.
|
|
1299 - 1307
AD
|
Siege of
Tlemcen by Marinid ruler Abu Ya'qub (Morocco). |
|
1304
AD
|
The greatest
medieval, Berber traveller Ibn Battuta was born in Tangier in
Morocco. In 1325 he set out on his journey across North Africa
to Mecca. From there he visited most of the countries of the
Near East (although some say he never did went that far). In 1331 he
travelled down the east coast of Africa to Mogadishu and Mombassa. Then he returned
to Morocco in 1349. He travelled to Spain in 1350, and then went back south to
the Western Sahara and Mali. Some of the things he said were doubted by historians.
One of the observations he made was that slaves commanded higher
prices than gold; when he went home, he was part of a caravan
carrying 600 female slaves from Takedda in Mali. He returned
to Morocco in 1353 , and began writing his stories.
|
|
1316 - 30
AD
|
The Christian
Kingdom of Abyssinia was revived by a new line of kings, the
Solomonids, who claimed descent from King Solomon. They
halted the Muslims' advance into the highlands and conquered the
pagans' territories south of the Blue Nile.
|
|
1331 - 1351
AD
|
Accession of
Marinid Abu Al-Hasan (Morocco); Marinids take Tlemcen.
Christians defeat Marinids in Spain (Andalus). Fall of Algeciras,
expulsion of Marinids. Marinid Abu I-Hasan conquers Afriqya.
Rebellion of Abu I-Hasan's son Abu'nan (Morocco). Death of
Abu I-Hasan, who was succeeded by Abu Inan.
|
|
1352 - 1358
AD
|
Marinid Abu Inan
reconquers Afriqya. Death of Abu lnan; Marinid power
weakened. Ziyanids recover Tlemcen (Morocco). |
|
1362 - 91
AD
|
Reign of Nasrid
Muhammad al-Ghani at Granada (Andalus). Hafsids recover Afriqya
(Afriqya). |
|
1400
AD
|
Mali lost
control of Songhay Kingdom. |
|
1402 - 1405
AD
|
The Portuguese
Prince Henry conquered the Canary Islands. |
|
1402 - 1797
AD
|
Spaniards'
genocide of the Berber Guanche people of the Canary Islands:
extinction. |
|
1415 - 1431
AD
|
Portuguese seize
Ceuta (Morocco), Portugal's first venture. A Chinese fleet
visited East Africa (first large ships started to appear in China
and Portugal). The Portuguese discover Madeira Island and the
Azores in 1431, and by 1460 they reached Sierra Leone.
|
|
1455 - 1458
AD
|
Wars of the Roses
begin (UK). Portuguese take Alcazarquivir [Al-Qaser-Quivir],
Tangier, Larache and Azemmour. |
|
1464
AD
|
The King Ali
ascended the throne of Songhay, conquered Timbuctoo (an important
point in the lucrative bussiness gold and slave trafficking) in
1469, and Jenne in 1473.
|
|
1471
AD
|
In Morocco the
Marinids were replaced by the Wattasids. |
|
1478 - 1492 AD
|
The Spanish
conquered Gran Canaria.
Christian monarchs conquer Granada (Andalus). |
|
1492
AD
|
Christopher
Columbus made Gomera (Canary Islands) his last place of call when
he sailed to rediscover the Americas. |
|
1496
AD
|
The Spanish
conquered Tenerife. |
|
1535
AD
|
The French and the
Ottomans signed a treaty: the French became the ranking
foreign community in Tunis.
|
|
1516 - 1551
AD
|
Ottoman Pashas
appointed by Turkish Sultan. The Mamluks replaced by the
Ottomans. The Ottomans occupied Tripolitania, Algeria in
1555, and Tunisia in 1574. In 1551 the Muslims took Tripoli
again.
|
|
1571 - 1573
AD
|
The Spanish invaded Tunis in 1573. |
|
1578
AD
|
Almansur: the Portuguese sent the biggest army
they had ever sent overseas to land in Morocco - around 30,000
men. The King of Portugal himself was in command of the army and met the local
king in the battle of the three kings. Three kings died: King
of Portugal, his Sultan, and the Moroccan king, who was ill and
died in the 'process'. It is also known as the battle of the
Big Castle (Al-Qaser Al-Kabir). Most of the Portuguese army was
finished or captured and, later, Portugal fell to Spain. The Moroccan
prince who succeeded to the throne took the title Almansur (the
Victorious). In 1590, The prince
Almansur took the Kingdom of Songhay into his empire, and gold
flowed in.
|
|
1603 AD
|
In 1603, Ahmad Almansur, the king of Morocco,
made a proposal to his English ally Queen Elizabeth I. Had
Elizabeth accepted, the plan would have completely changed the
history of the modern world. The Moors needed the help of the
English to colonise America by attacking the Spanish colonies,
and keep it under joint dominion (ref: Turks, Moors & Englishmen
In The Age of Discovery, by Nabil Matar, Columbia).
|
|
1655
AD
|
Algerian pirates stopped by the British.
|
|
1655 - 1657
AD
|
Seizure of
Gibraltar contemplated by the English. Main Spanish fleet
destroyed at Tenerife (Canary Islands) by the English.
|
|
1700s
AD
|
The authorities in
Tripoli, Tunis and Algiers enjoyed a state of near independence.
|
| 1711 AD |
Ahmed Karamanli captures Tripoli. |
|
1714
AD
|
Tripolitania establishes complete independence
from the Ottomans.
|
|
1780s
AD
|
The slave trade
reaching its peak: 100,000 Africans are kidnapped and sold a
year. By 1800 AD about five million Africans were sold to the
West. The population of black Africa increased sharply to about
60 million as opposed to 10 million living north of the Sahara.
|
|
1789 - 1815
AD
|
The French Revolution. Napoleon
in Egypt (1798), where he fought the battle of the Pyramids with the
Mamluks. Defeated Napoleon
returned home a year later.
|
|
1801
AD
|
Turkish Period,
Mohammed Ali (1801-1848). In 1811 he invited the Mumluk
leadership to a banquet in Cairo and massacred them all. In 1818
he controlled Arabia, and in 1820 Nubia.
|
|
1807
AD
|
The British
outlawed the slave trade. The British establishing military
presence in few cities along the east coast of Africa for returned
or confiscated slaves and refugees, which later
became modern day Ghana, Sierra Leone and Liberia. This is the period
when organised politics began to take over and shape the future of
Africa and the world at large.
The prices of
slaves in Tripoli (given by Graberg, Swedish consul in 1822):
|
|
1811
AD
|
Tripoli took
Fezzan and gained control over the Tripoli-Bornu route.
|
|
1832
AD
|
The Ottomans
re-establish control over Tripoli.
|
|
1863 - 1879
AD
|
The Libyan population, in contrast to the explosion
taking place in Egypt, was decreasing, down
from 757,000 people in 1840s to 523,176 people in 1911.
It appears that this figure does not include the nomads and the Berber
Tuareg of the Sahara. The population of Egypt was nearly 5 million people by
1860, which
is the same as that of Morocco at the time. But by 1920, the Egyptians
grew to 14 million while the Moroccans only increased by one
and a half million (from 4 to 5.487 million).
Tunisia also remained around 2 million right
from 1800 to 1940, but it grew to 5 million by 1971. In
Algeria the population was around 4 million in 1800 AD, and
remained so until 1936 when it increased by 2.2 million. In
1966 however the population of Egypt more than doubled (30,075,858 ),
while the
Libyans were still less than 2 millions in 1968.
|
Back
to top
The Arrival of The Spaniards & The Turks:
After a short lull in Libya's history, it was the turn of
the Spaniards and the Turks to share the spoils of the Great White
Sea. During the 14th and 15th centuries the Spaniards were wreaking
havoc across the waters of the Mediterranean. The genocide of
the natives of the Canary Islands was completed in 1500
AD, and the survivors were sold as first-class slaves in Europe.
And soon after, they destroyed Tripoli in 1510 AD
and built a fortified naval base from the rubble. Throughout
the 16th century, Spain and the Ottoman Turks were fighting over
the control of the Mediterranean, just as the Phoenicians
and the Romans did before. Chaos was the king and piracy became
an established business on both side of the Great White Sea. By 1551 AD the knights
were driven out of Tripoli by
Turkish pirates, and by 1580 AD the chiefs of Fezzan finally
allied with the Turks. By the early 18th century, the Karamanli
dynasty rose to fame, mainly in trafficking slaves and piracy,
activities which eventually invited European powers to take
control of Africa. Some European governments began sending a series of expeditions
to all parts of Africa, collecting maps and information about
the hidden continent, with master plans to abolish
the slave trade and establish a different kind of economy. The
British were the first to campaign for ending slavery.
Modern Colonial Period:
The spread of the Ottoman Empire saw Libya come under a state
of disarray and chaos, where corruption and cruelty were the
main characteristics of the period. In September 1911 Italy accused
Turkey of arming tribesmen in Libya and soon afterwards declared
war and captured Tripoli in October the 3rd and occupied Cyrenaica's
Tobruk and Benghazi. The initial resistance of the Turks soon
disappeared and instead they settled for peace in 1912, while
Italy began its wars against the Libyans. The powerful Sanusi
religious order managed to unite the rival tribes of
Cyrenaica and form a strong opposition to the Italians. But when
the Italians forcibly united Cyrenaica with Tripolitania in what
is now know as Libya in 1931 and thus the Libyan resistance came
to an end, the Libyans were driven to join forces with
the Allied and finally succeeded in defeating the Italians.
Erwin Rommel's campaigns with
the allies marked a bloody period of Libya's history, which eventually
led the British to pave the way for Libya to join the international
community. Under the supervision of the United Nations, King
Idris was chosen from the Sanusi clan to become the king of Independent
Libya in 1951.
www.temehu.com . Author: Nesmenser ©
2008, updated 2011, 2012.
This work (Brief History & Prehistory of Libya, www.temehu.com) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. (Note: please do not remove this licence if you intend
to share this article. Doing so violates the terms of this agreement. This paragraph must remain intact including this active link to the original article at http://www.temehu.com/History-of-Libya.htm).
End of Article.
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